AN 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



BY 



G. P. QUACKENBOS, LL. D. 










NEW YORK •:• CINCINNATI :• CHICAGO 
AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 

FROM THE PRESS OP 

D. APPLETON & COMPANY 






e 



By tlie same Author: 

FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION : In which the Principles of the Art are 
developed in connection with the Principles of Grammar. 12mo, pp. 182. 

ADVANCED COURSE OF COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC : A Series of 
Practical Lessons on the Origin, History, and Peculiarities of the English 
Language, Punctuation, Taste, Figures, Style and its Essential Properties, 
Criticism, and the various Departments of Prose and Poetical Composition. 
12mo, pp. 451. 



Copyright, 1862, 
BY G. P. QUACKENBOS. 

Copyright, 1890, 
BY LOUISE B. QUACKENBOS. 



CONTENTS. 



uassoN 

I. Letters, Syllables, Words, Sentences 

II. Classification of Letters . . . . 

III. Accent. — Primitive, Derivative, and Compound Words 

IV. Formation of Derivatives.— Inseparable Roots 
V. Prefixes ..... 

VI. Suftixes 

VII. Analysis of Words .... 

VIII. Rules of Spelling 

IX. Syllabication .... 

X. Forms of the Letters . 

XL The Parts of Speech 

XII. Nouns and their Classes 

XIIL Subdivisions of Common Nouns 

XIV. The Person of Nouns . 

XV. The Number of Noun3 . 

XVI. Irregular Plurals 

XVII. Plural of Compound and Complex Nouns 

XVIII. Plural of Foreign Nouns 

XIX. Nouns not used in both Numbers 

XX. The Gender of Nouns . 

XXI. Masculine and Feminine Correlatives . 

XXII. The Case of Nouns, ... 

XXIII. The Declension of Nouns 

XXIV. The Pronoun.— Personal Pronouns . 
XXV. Rules for Nouns and Pronouns . 

XXVI. Parsing Forms for Nouns and Pronouns . 

XXVII. Simple Relative Pronouns 

XXVi: r . Compound Relative Pronouns 

XXIX. Interrogative Pronouns 

XXX. Adjective Pronouns . 

XXXI. The Article 

XXXII. Adjectives and their Classes . 

XXXIII. Comparison of Adjectives 

XXXIV. Irregular Comparison . 
XXXV. A Written Exercise 

XXXVI. Verbs and their Classes 

XXXVII. Voice 

XXXVIII. Properties of Verbs.— Mood.— Tense 

XXXIX. The Indicative Mood and its Tenses 

XL. The Potential Mood and its Tenses . 

XLI. The Subjunctive and Imperative Mood . 

XLII. The Infinitive Mood. — Person and Number of Verbs 

XLIII. Participles 

XLIV. Construction of Participles 

XLV. Auxiliaries. — Be, have 

XL VI. The Auxiliaries do, did, will, shall . 

XLVIL The Auxiliaries may, can, must, need, might, could, fyc. 



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CONTENTS. 



LESSON 

XLVIII. The Verb be 

XLIX. Conjugation of a Transitive Verb in the Active Voice 

L. Conjugation of a Transitive Verb in the Passive Voice 

LI. Progressive Form of the Verb . 

LII. Negative and Interrogative Conjugations . 

LIII. Verbs distinguished as Regular and Irregular 

Table of Primitive Irregular Verbs . 

LIV. Defective Verbs .... 

LV. The Adverb 

LVI. Adverbs (continued) 

LVII. Comparison and Construction of Adverbs . 

LVIII. The Preposition .... 

LIX. Prepositions (continued) 

LX. The Conjunction . . . . 

LXI. The Interjection .... 

LXII. A Practical Review 

LXIII. Sentences classified according to their Meaning 

LXIV. Sentences classified according to their Form 

LXV. Structure of Sentences 

LXVI. Analysis of Sentences 

LXVII. Analysis (continued) . 

LXVIII. Ellipsis 

LXIX. Explanation of Difficult Constructions 

LXX. Subject.— Nominative Independent. — False Syntax 

LXXI. Substantives modifying Nouns.— False Syntax 

LXXII. Object.— Objective of Time.— False Syntax 

LXXIII. Substantives in Apposition. — False Syntax . 

LXXIV. Substantives after Verbs.— False Syntax 

LXXV. Pronouns.— False Syntax 

LXXVI. Pronouns (continued).— False Syntax 

LXXVII. Relative Pronouns.— False Syntax . 

LXX VII I. Pronouns (continued).— False Syntax 

LXXIX. Articles.— False Syntax 

LXXX. Adjectives.— False Syntax 

LXXXI. Adjectives (continued).— False Syntax 

LXXXII. Finite Verbs— False Syntax 

LXXXIII. Finite Verbs (continued). — False Syntax 

LXXXIV. Finite Verbs (continued).— False Syntax 

LXXXV. The Infinitive.— False Syntax 

LXXXVI. Participles.— False Syntax 

LXXX VII. Participles (continued).— False Syntax 

LX XXVIII. Adverbs.— False Syntax . 

'■ LXXXIX. Prepositions.— False Syntax . 

XC. Conjunctions.— False Syntax . 

XCI. Miscellaneous Exercise in False Syntax 

XCII. Rules for Capitals . 

XCIII. Punctuation 

XCIV. Punctuation (continued) . 

XCV. Punctuation (continued) 

XCVI. Punctuation (continued) . 

XCVII. Apostrophe.— Hyphen. — Quotation-points . 

XCVIII. Figures of Etymology.— Figures of Syntax 

XCIX. Figures of Rhetoric .... 

C. Prosody ..... 

CI. Prosody (continued) 



PREFACE, 



Several years ago, the author was engaged by the publishers 
of Weld's English Grammar to revise that work, with instructions 
to make such changes in it as would in his opinion perfect the 
system therein presented. This task he performed to the best 
of his ability, making as good a book as he knew how to produce 
on Weld's system. This system, however, was not his own ; in 
many important points it did not represent his views ; nor was 
it his province, being simply its editor, to introduce his own pe- 
culiar views into the revised book. They have been retained for 
the present work, contemplated long before the revision was un- 
dertaken, and here presented as a new and distinct System of 
Grammar. 

In offering the present Grammar to the public, the author 
begs leave to refer to the work itself as the best exponent of those 
peculiarities by which it is to be approved or condemned. A few 
words, however, may not be improper here as to its plan and gen- 
eral features. 

Grammar has hitherto been a dry and hard subject to teach. 
It is here sought to make it easy and interesting by combining 
practice with theory, example with precept, on a more liberal 
scale than has heretofore generally been done. The matter is 
divided into short lessons, followed in every case by an Exercise, 
which applies in every variety of way the principles just laid 



6 PREFACE. 

down, and frequently embodies a practical review of what has 
been previously learned. 

Definitions are approached by means of preliminary illustra- 
tions, which make their abstract language intelligible while it is 
in process of learning. 

"Words are classified as parts of speech solely and exclusively 
according to their use in the sentence. This course does away 
with all arbitrary distinctions, and enables the pupil to classify 
words readily and correctly for himself. 

The Eules of Syntax are introduced as they are needed, in 
connection with etymological parsing. Thus, among other ad- 
vantages, is avoided the unreasonableness (inevitable, when these 
rules are kept back) of requiring a pupil to give the case of nouns 
under circumstances in which he can have no possible clue to it. 

A simple method of analyzing sentences is presented, not en- 
cumbered with technical terms or requiring labor on the teacher's 
part to make it available. 

There is no avoiding of difficulties. A lesson is expressly de- 
voted to the explanation of perplexing constructions. 

Many minor points may also be noticed ; such as doing away 
with the neuter gender, a factitious distinction engrafted on English 
Grammar from the classical languages ; the view taken of com- 
parison; the comprehensive treatment of auxiliaries, and direc- 
tions for their proper use ; the introduction of need, as an auxil- 
iary of the present potential ; the unusually full Exercises on False 
Syntax ; and the general arrangement and adaptation of the whole. 

It is believed that this Grammar will be found to work well in 
the class-room, and, whether used in connection with the author's 
books on Composition or independently of them, to impart a 
thorough knowledge of our language. 

N w Yobk, July 22, 186& 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



LESSON I. 

LETTERS, SYLLABLES, WORDS, SENTENCES. 

1, What Grammar is. — Men have minds ; with 
these they think. Men have speech ; this enables 
them to express their thoughts. 

Thoughts are expressed with words. Grammar 
teaches us how to put words together, to express 
thoughts correctly. 

Thoughts may be either spoken or written. Gram- 
mar, therefore, teaches us how to speak and write cor- 
rectly. 

Different languages, such as English, French, Latin, 
have different peculiarities. Hence every language has 
its own grammar. English Grammar teaches us how 
to speak and write the English language correctly. 

2. Words. — A Word is the sign of an idea. 

1. With what do men think ? How are they enabled to express their thoughts ? 
With what are thoughts expressed? What teaches us how to put words to- 
gether, to express thoughts correctly ? How may thoughts be made known ? 
What, then, does Grammar teach us ? What does English Grammar teach us ? 
What is a Word? Give an example. How are words oombined? Give an 



8 LETTERS. — SYLLABLES. 

Thus, the word rose is a sign that stands for the queen of flowers. The 
word village is a sign that stands for a small collection of houses. 

To express thoughts, words, which are the signs of 
distinct ideas, are combined in Sentences. When I say, 
" The rose is sweet," I express one thought, with four 
words combined in one sentence. 

3. Letters. — "When spoken, a word is a sound or 
combination of sounds. When written, a word is a 
character or combination of characters, standing for its 
sound or sounds. The word rose, when written, con- 
sists of four characters, rose, which stand for the sound 
heard when the word is uttered. These characters are 
called Letters. 

A Letter is a character that stands for a sound of the 
human voice used in speaking ; as, a, z. 

The letters of a language constitute its Alphabet. 
The English alphabet contains twenty-six letters ; a, h, 
c, d, ^ f, ff, h, h h *> h ™>> n, o, p, g, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, 

The art of combining letters correctly, to form words, 
is called Spelling. 

4. Syllables. — Some words are uttered with but one 
impulse of the voice; as, go, light Others require 
several impulses ; as, go-ing, en-light-en. This gives 
rise to a division of words into Syllables. 

A Syllable is a letter or combination of letters uttered 
with one impulse of the voice ; as, a, an, ant, anti- 
dote. 

5. Syllabic Division of Words. — According to the 

example. 3. What is a word, -when spoken? What, when written? Give an 
example. What is a Letter ? What is meant by the Alphabet of a language ? 
How many letters does the English alphabet contain ? Repeat them. What is 
Spelling? 4. Show the difference of words, as regards their utterance. What is a 
Syllable ? 5. How are words divided, as regards their number of syllables ? What 



SYLLABIC DIVISION OF WORDS. 9 

number of their syllables, words are divided into four 
classes ; Monosyllables, Dissyllables, Trisyllables, and 
Polysyllables. 

A Monosyllable is a word of one syllable ; a Dissyllable 
is a word of two syllables ; a Trisyllable, of three ; a 
Polysyllable, of more than three. He is a monosyllable ; 
he-ro, a dissyllable; he-ro-ic, a trisyllable; he-ro-i-cal, 
he-ro-i-cal-ly, are polysyllables. 

6. Summing up. — The elements of language are Let- 
ters, which stand for simple sounds of the human voice 
used in speaking. Letters are combined in Syllables, 
which represent sounds uttered by one impulse of the 
voice. Syllables are combined in Words, which are the 
signs of ideas. "Words are combined in Sentences, 
which express thoughts. 

EXERCISE. 

Pronounce each of the following words, and tell whether it is a 
monosyllable, dissyllable, trisyllable, or polysyllable: — Length; 
courageous ; wintry ; irresistible ; coined ; uncoined ; beautiful ; 
mechanism; unmerciful; asthma; every; trout; meteorology; 
flower; chivalry; wicked; walked; stereoscope. 

Mention four dissyllables; four polysyllables ; four monosyl- 
lables ; four trisyllables. 



LESSON II. 

CLASSIFICATION OF LETTERS. 

7. Powers of the Letters. — The Power of a letter 
is its sound in a given word. 

The power of a letter must be distinguished from its name. In the 

is a Monosyllable? A Dissyllable? A Trisyllable? A Polysyllable? 6. Sum 
up the matter of this Lesson. 

7. What is the Power of a letter ? From what must the power of a letter be 



10 VOWELS AND CONSONANTS. 

word me, the power of e is the same as its name ; in met, the power of e is 

different from its name. Give the name and the power of each letter in 

the word /arms. 

Some letters stand for more than one sound ; as, a in ale, awl, are, am. 
Some sounds have more than one letter to stand for them. Thus, in 

her, sir, fur, the same sound is represented by e, i, and u. 

Our twenty-six letters represent in all about forty distinct sounds. 

8. Yowels and Consonants. — Of the twenty-six let- 
ters, some are uttered freely, without interruption to 
the breath ; as, a, e. In uttering others, the breath is 
more or less interrupted by the tongue or lips ; as, d,f. 
Hence the letters are divided into two classes, Yowels 
and Consonants. 

A Vowel is a letter that can be uttered freely, with- 
out interruption from the tongue or lips. 

A Consonant is a letter that cannot be uttered freely, 
but is more or less interrupted by the tongue or lips. 

9. There are five vowels ; a, e, i, o, u. 

There are nineteen consonants ; b, c, d,f, g, h,j, Tc, l 9 
m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, x, z. 

Two of the letters, w and y, are consonants in some 
cases, and in others vowels. When they precede a 
vowel sounded in the same syllable, they are conso- 
nants ; as in wet, whet, swing, re-ward, yet, un-yield-ing. 
In all other positions, they are vowels ; as in view, awe, 
by, eye, raw-ly. 

U and i are classed among the vowels. But observe that u is a con- 
sonant when it has the sound of w in wet ; as in quit, dissuade [pronounced 
Jcwit, dis-swade]. I, also, is a consonant, when it has the sound of y in 
yet ; as in billion, brilliant [pronounced bil-jun, bril-jant], 

distinguished? Give examples. For what do some letters stand ? What do some 
sounds have to represent them ? Give examples. How many sounds are repre- 
sented by our twenty-six letters ? 8. What difference is found in the utterance of 
the different letters ? Accordingly, how are letters divided ? WTiat is a Vowel ? 
What is a Consonant? 9. How many vowels are there? Name them. How 
many consonants ? Name them. What are w and y 7 When are w and y conso- 
nants, and when vowels ? When is u a consonant ? Give examples. When is i a 



DIPHTHONGS. — TRIPHTHONGS. 1 1 

10. Combinations of Yowels. — A Diphthong is a 
combination of two vowels in one syllable ; as, ai in 
vain, ow in cow, ea in heat. 

A Proper Diphthong is one in which both vowels are 
sounded; as, oy in boy, on in pound. 

An Improper Diphthong is one in which but one vowel 
is sounded ; as, ie in mien [sounded like e in me], au 
in fraud [sounded like a in all]. 

A Triphthong is a combination of three vowels in one 
syllable ; as, iew in view, eau in lean. 

When u has the sound of w in wet, and i that of y in yet, they are con- 
sonants, and do not therefore, when followed by a vowel, unite with it to 
form a diphthong. There is no diphthong in the words quack, sanguine, 
persuade, brilliant, &c. So, there is no triphthong in queen ; u is a conso- 
nant in that word, and ee a diphthong. 

11. A Final Letter is one that ends a word. T is 
final in rat. 

12. A Silent Letter is one not sounded. E is silent 
in ice, Tc in Jcnave, I in talk, w in wrong. 

EXERCISE. 

In the following words, point out the vowels, consonants, final 
letters, silent letters, proper and improper diphthongs, and triph- 
thongs : — Gnaw ; wheat ; humorously ; quadrillion ; liquor ; yeast ; 
beauties; sword; burlesque; two; squaw; eye-brow; hymn; 
coast- wise; viciously; walking-beam; psalm. 



LESSON III. 

ACCENT.-PRIMITIVE, DERIVATIVE, AND COMPOUND WORDS. 

13. Accent. — "When a word of two or more syllables 

consonant ? Give examples. 10. What is a Diphthong ? What is a Proper Diph- 
thong? What is an Improper Diphthong? What is a Triphthong? When u 
and i are consonants, what follows ? 11. What is a Final Letter ? 12. What is a 
Silent Letter ? 

18. Why is one syllable of a word heard more distinctly than the rest ? What 



12 ACCENT, 

is pronounced, one syllable is generally heard more dis- 
tinctly than the rest ; as, ter in terrible, sleep in asleep. 
This is because it receives more force, or stress, of voice. 
Accent is stress of voice laid on a certain syllable 
when a word is uttered. 

14. The syllable that receives the stress is said to be 
accented. It may be denoted by a mark called the 
Acute Accent ('), placed above it to the right; as, 
lew! on, engrave'. 

The first syllable is accented in orange, Canada, amiable ; the second, 
in create, inviting, America; the third, in magazine, Alabama, irresist- 
ible; the fourth, in overfatigue, Adrianople, incomprehensible; the fifth, 
in indivisibility ; the sixth, in incomprehensibility. 

15. A difference of accent sometimes serves to distinguish words 
spelled alike but differing in meaning. Thus Au'gust is the eighth month ; 
august' is grave, majestic. A gallant is a brave man ; a gallant! is a gay, 
fashionable one. A con' cert is a musical entertainment ; to concert! plans 
is to contrive them. Observe a similar difference between a per 'fume and 
to perfume ; an ob'ject and to object'; an o'verflow and to overflow , &c. 

16. WoKDS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THEIR FORMA- 
TION.— -As regards their formation, words are distin- 
guished as Primitive, Derivative, and Compound. 

A Primitive is a word not formed from any other in 
the language ; as, ice, house, arm, light. 

A Derivative is a word formed from a single simpler 
word, by the addition of a letter or letters to modify its 
meaning ; as, iced, houses, disarm, enlighten. 

A Compound Word is one formed of two or more* 
words, whether primitives or derivatives ; as, ice-house, 
light- armed, backwoodsman. 

is Accent ? 14. What is an accented syllable ? How may it be denoted ? Give an 
example of words accented on the first syllable ; on the second ; on the third ; on 
the fourth ; on the fifth ; on the sixth. 15. What does a difference of accent some- 
times serve to do? Give examples. 16. As regards their formation, how are 
words divided ? What is a Primitive % What is a Derivative ? What is a Com- 
pound Word? How may a derivative be formed? How may a compound b& 



ACCENT OF COMPOUND WORDS. 13 

A derivative may be formed from a compound ; as, good-natured from 
good-nature. 

A compound may be formed of two derivatives ; as, rosy-cheeked {rosy y 
from rose ; cheeked, from cheek). 

17. Accent of Compound Words. — In some com- 
pounds, there is but one accent ; as, gen'tleman, 
praiseworthy. In others, each of the words com- 
pounded retains its accent ; as, writ 'ing-mas f ter^ 
man'y-col'ored. 

When there are more accents than one, the parts of the compound are 
generally connected with a short horizontal line (-), called the Hyphen. 
When there is but one accent in the compound, the hyphen is commonly 
omitted. See the examples in the last paragraph. 

EXEECISEi 

Pronounce as accented: — Inqui'ry ; muse'um ; camel'opard ; 
hegi'ra ; sono'rous ; complaisance' ; compla'cence ; lyce'um ; chi- 
val'ric ; chiv'alrous ; advertisement ; mis'chievous ; chas'tisement ; 
exoteric ; Ori'on ; Aristi'des ; Iphigeni'a ; Ma'homet ; Moham'med ; 
Sardanapa'lus. 

Classify as Primitive, Derivative, or Compound, and state which 
syllable is accented : — Hand ; handy ; unhandy ; hand- writing ; 
Mississippi ; achievement ; imperishable ; unlooked-for ; butter- 
milk ; broken-hearted ; narrow-mindedness ; irritability ; arith' 
metic ; a rosewood chess-board, inlaid with mother-of-pearl. 



LESSON IV. 

FORMATION" OF DERIVATIVES.-INSEPARABLE ROOTS. 

18. Formation of Derivatives. — The primitive 
Words of our language are few, compared with the 

formed ? 17. What difference is fonnd in the accentuation of compound words ? 
Give examples. What is the Hyphen ? When is the hyphen generally used be- 
tween the parts of a compound ? When is it commonly omitted ? 

18. How do primitive words compare in number with derivatives ? Why is 
this ? What derivatives are formed from the primitive part 7 How are these de* 



14 FORMATION OF DERIVATIVES. 

derivatives. This is because many derivatives somo- 

times come from a single primitive. Thus from the 

primitive part are formed 

countermart, party, imparted, 

depart, partisan, copartner, 

impart, particle, imparting, &c, &c. 

It will be seen that these derivatives are formed by placing certain let* 

ters before or after the primitive, or both. The letters thus placed are 

called Prefixes and Suffixes. 

19. Prefixes and Suffixes. — A Prefix is a letter or 
letters placed before a primitive or compound, to modify 
its meaning ; as, de in depart, un in ungentlemanly. 

A Suffix is a letter or letters placed after a primitive 
or compound, to modify its meaning; as, isan bipart- 
isan, ly in ungentlemanly. 

Prefixes and suffixes modify the meaning of the word to which they are 
joined. Thus, the prefix un means not ; the suffix ness means the quality 
of being. Then unkind means not kind; kindness is the quality of being 
kind; unkindness is the quality of being not kind. So with unsound, 
soimdness, unsoundness, &c, &c. 

20. Inseparable Roots. — Some derivatives come 
from roots not separately used as words. Thus, avert, 
reverted, convertible, and many other derivatives, come 
from the root vert, meaning to turn. 

These roots are mostly from Latin words, and some of them enter into 
a great number of derivatives. The most important ones are given belov/ 
with their meanings, and should be committed to memory. 

INSEPARABLE ROOTS. 



CEDE, OEED, CESS, to gO. 

ceive, cept, to take. 

CLUDE, CLUS, to shut. 



cue, cues, to run. 
dict, to say, to speak. 
duce, duct, to lead. 



Hvatives formed ? 19. "What is a Prefix ? What is a Suffix ? What is the force 
of prefixes and suffixes ? Illustrate this with the prefix un and the suffix ness. 
20. From what sort of roots do some derivatives come ? Give examples. From 
yhat language are these inseparable roots mostly derived ? 



INSEPARABLE BOOTS. 



15 



fect, fioi, to do, make. 
fee, to bear, to carry. 
fuse, to pour. 
ject, to cast 
late, to bear, to carry. 
lect, to choose, to gather. 
ltjde, lus, to play. 
mit, miss, to send. 
pel, puls, to drive. 



pexd, pens, to hang. 
pone, pose, to place. 
port, to carry. 
scribe, script, to write. 
sist, to stand. 
tain, tent, to hold. 
tend, tens, to stretch. 
tract, to draw. 
yene, tent, to come. 



EXEECISEi 

Spell and analyze the following derivatives : — [Thus : — Receive is 
a derivative from the inseparable root ceive, to take ; re is a pre- 
fix. — Mission is a derivative from the inseparable root miss, to 
send; ion is a suffix. — Copartner is a derivative from the primi- 
tive part ; co is a prefix, ner a suffix.] Tension ; contradict ; in- 
vented ; susceptible ; translate ; tractable ; confuse ; prevent ; suf- 
ficient ; ductile ; conference ; scripture ; postpone ; subject ; 
inducement ; repel ; averting ; suppose ; illusive. 



LESSON V 



PREFIXES. 



[For young classes, divide the following List and Exercise into 
three lessons, giving one third of each at a time.] 

21. A list of the most common prefixes follows; 
learn their meanings. It will be seen that some of them 
have different forms. In most cases, this is because the 
final letter is changed, to correspond with the first let- 
ter of the primitive or root. Thus we have ac-climate, 
at-tend, in stead of ad-cli?nate, ad-tend. 



a, 1. in, on. 

2. [or an], destitute of, want 
of. 

3. [or ab, abs], from, away. 



AD [AO, AF, AG, AL, AN, AP, AE, 
AS, AT], to. 

ante, before. 

anti [ant], opposed, opposite to. 



16 



LIST OF THE MOST COMMON PREFIXES. 



be, by, to make. 
bi, two. 

circum, around. 

con [co, col, com, cor], together, 
a joint. 

CONTRA [CONTRO, COUNTER], 

against. 

de, from, down, to make, to de- 
prive of. 

dis [di], apart, to remove, not. 

en [em], in, to make, to make or 
put in. 

ex [e, ec, ef], out, from, beyond. 

in [ig, il, im, ir], to make, to 
put in, not. 

inter, between. 



mis, wrong, ill. 

ob [oo, of, op], before, against. 

out, beyond, better. 

per, through, thoroughly. 

pre, before. 

pro, forth, forward, for. 

re, back, again. 

se, from, apart, out. 

semi, half. 

sub [sue, suf, sua, SUP, sur, 

sus], under, after. 
super [supra, sur], over, above, 

beyond. 
trans [tran, tra], over, across. 
ultra, beyond. 
un, to remove, not. 



EXERCISE. 

Spell and define the following derivatives. They are arranged 
with their prefixes in the same order as those in the List. When a 
prefix has several meanings, one derivative is given to illustrate each. 
[Thus : — Ablaze — spell — in a blaze, ^fire — spell — on fire. Aceph- 
alous — spell — destitute of a head. Anarchy, want of govern- 
ment, &c] 

Ablaze ; afire ; acephalous ; anarchy ; avert ; attract ; ap- 
pend ; assist ; anteroom ; anti- American ; antarctic ; Reside ; be- 
numb ; ftiforni (having two forms) ; circumvent ; compose ; co- 
tenant ; c<m£radict ; attain ; o*ecry ; debase ; defame ; dilate ; dis- 
burden ; disagreeable ; entwine ; enrich ; embody ; educe ; exclude ; 
exceed ; Empurple ; mease ; irrational ; interlace ; misbelieve ; 
misfortune ; offer ; object' ; outmarch ; outsail ; perceive ; perfect ; 
preoccupy ; produce ; propel ; ^reconsul ; repay ; reprint ; secede ; 
seclude ; select ; semitone ; s^&officer ; sweceed ; swrmount ; super- 
scribe ; superhuman ; transcribe ; transport ; tramontane (be- 
yond the mountains) ; unload ; unfit. 

Arranged promiscuously : — Collect; suffix; embroil; apportion; 
imprison; supravulgar; anti-republican; antedate; deject; illegal; 
effuse; accede; controvert,* allure; dispirit; infirm. 



LIST OF THE MOST COMMON SUFFIXES. 



17 



LESSON VI. 

SUFFIXES. 



[For young classes, divide the following List and Exercise into 
two lessons, giving one half of each at a time,] 



22. A List of the most 
learn their meanings. 

able, ible, ile, that may or can 
be, worthy of being. 

age, a place where, the cost of, 
state or rank of, act of. 

al, relating to, the act of. 

an, ar, ian, relating to, one who. 

ard, ist, or, one who. 

ate, to make, made like, pos- 
sessed of. 

ed, did, possessed of. 

ee, one who is. 

en, to make, made of. 
er, more, one who. 
es, s, more than one, does. 
ess, ine, ix, a female. 
est, most, dost. 



common suffixes follows; 

FUL, OTIS, EOUS, IOUS, Y, Ml of. 

fy, ify, ize, to make. 

hood, dom, ship, the state, rank, 

domain of. 
ing, ant, ent, continuing to. 
ion, ment, ure, the act of. 
ism, the state of being, system 

of. 

BIN, LET, LING, OCX, ULE, CUTE, a 

little. 
less, without, that can not be. 
ly, in a ( ) manner, like. 
ness, oe, oy, ity, ty, the state 

or quality of being. 
some, ish, somewhat. 
ry, ery, the art or practice of. 



E X EE CI S -EC* 

Spell and define the following derivatives. They are arranged 
with their suffixes in the same order as those in the List. [Thus : — 
Chargeable — spell — that may oe charged. Honorable — spell— 
worthy of being honored. Moorage — spell — a place where to moor, 
&c] 

Chargeable; honora&fe/ moorage; -pilotage; peerage; mar- 
riage; autumna?; acquittal; Chilian; columnar; guardian; 
dullard; psahmstf; grantor; validate; globate; fortunate; kicked; 
good-humored; employe; shorts; hempen; quicker; keeper; 
foxes; ways; crushes; sits; priestess; testator; quickest; keep- 
est; fearful; pompous; watery ; justify ; manhood; judgeship; 
kingdom; beating; pendent; mission; sensualism; protestant- 



18 ANALYSIS OF WORDS. 

ism; lamb Mi; tearless; sateless; rashZy; queenly; oddity; 
sourness; lonesome; blacki'sA; heraldry; buffoonery. 



LESSON VII. 

ANALYSIS OF WORDS. 

23. Formation of Derivatives. — A derivative may 
be formed by uniting two or more prefixes or suffixes 
with a primitive or inseparable root ; as, 

Be-ex-povt, to c&rry-out-again. 

Just-ify-ing, continuing -to ma&e-just. 

JRe-col-lect-ion-s, more than one-act of-gsdheving-together-again. 

A derivative may be formed by uniting a prefix or 
suffix with, a compound; as, good-humor-0<#, having 
good-humor. 

24. Formation of Compound Words. — Compounds 
may be formed by uniting, 

1. Two primitives ; as, moon-beam. 

2. A primitive and a derivative ; as, bright-eyed. 

Analysis. — Bright is a primitive ; eyed is a derivative from the primi- 
tive eye, meaning having eyes ; bright-eyed is a compound, meaning having 
bright eyes. 

3. Two derivatives ; as, brightest-eyed. 

Analysis. — Brightest is a derivative from the primitive bright, mean- 
ing most bright ; eyed is a derivative from the primitive eye, meaning hav- 
ing eyes ; brightest-eyed is a compound, meaning having the most bright 
eyes. 

4. An inseparable root and a primitive ; as, multi- 
form. 

Analysis. — Multi is an inseparable root, meaning many ; form is a 
primitive; multiform is a compound, meaning having many forms. 

5. Two inseparable roots ; as, geography. 

23. How may a derivative be formed ? GKve examples. How else may a deriv* 



ANALYSIS OF WORDS. 19 

Analysis. — Geo is an inseparable root, meaning the earth; graphy 
is an inseparable root, meaning a description ; geography is a compound, 
meaning a description of the earth. 

25. The most important roots that enter into com- 
pound words are graphy, a description or history of, 
and logy, the science of, or a treatise on. They appear 
in many words, combined with other roots ; such as 

Bio, life. Geo, the earth. 

Ethno, a nation. Mytho, a fable. 

EXERCISE. 

Spell and analyze, according to the forms given above : — Eeen- 
force ; brightening ; seemingly ; unattracted ; inadvertently ; far- 
sighted ; gentlemanly ; powder-horn ; son-in-law ; commander- 
in-chief ; battering-ram ; wood-pecker ; pew-holder ; unhoped- 
for ; riding-schools ; watering-places ; biography ; geography ; 
ethnology; mythology. 



LESSON VIII. . 

RULES OF SPELLING. 

26. In forming compounds, the simple words are put 
together without change ; as, green-house. 

In forming derivatives, a prefix is joined to a primi- 
tive without change ; as, de-form. 

On adding a suffix, the primitive is changed in some 
cases, but not in others. 



ative be formed ? 24. What is the first mode mentioned in which a compound 
may "be formed? The second mode? Analyze bright-eyed. The third mode? 
Analyze brightest-eyed. The fourth mode ? Analyze multiform. The fifth mode ? 
Analyze geography. 25. What are the most important roots that enter into com- 
pound words ? Mention some other inseparable roots, with which they are com- 
pounded, and their meanings. 

26. What change is made in forming compounds ? In forming derivatives with 



20 RULES OF SPELLING. 

When the suffix ness is added to the primitive neat, no change is 
inade ; the derivative is neat-ness. When it is added to happy, the final 
y is changed to i ; the derivative is happi-ness. 

27. Rules of Spelling. — The following rules cover 
most cases in which, a change is made in the primitive 
on the addition of a suffix :— 

Rule I. — Reject the final e of a primitive, when a 
suffix is added commencing with a vowel ; as, lie, li-ar. 

But retain final e, when preceded by e or o, if the suffix added is able 
or ing : as, agree, agreeable ; shoe, shoeing. 

Retain final e, when preceded by c or g, if the suffix added is able or 
ous: as, notice, noticeable; outrage, outrageous. 

Rule II. — Reject e or o from words ending in er 
or or, when the suffix ance, ess, ix, or ous is added : 
as, enter, entr-ance / testator, testatr-ix. 

But in many cases e or o is retained : as, cancer, cancerous ; author , 
authoress. 

Rule III. — Reject the final le of a primitive, if pre- 
ceded by a consonant, when the suffix ly is added ; as, 
feelle, feeb-ly. 

Rule IV. — Double the final consonant of a mono- 
syllable, if preceded by but one vowel, when a suffix is 
added commencing with a vowel : as, stir, stirring ; 
quit, quitting. 

But final x is never doubled ; as, ox, oxen. 

Rule Y. — Double the final consonant of any word 
accented on the last syllable, if preceded by but one 

a prefix? In forming derivatives with a suffix? Give examples. 27. Recite 
Rule I., for the rejection of final e. [Examples are always to be given with Rules 
and Exceptions.] In what two cases is final e retained ? Recite Rule II., for the 
rejection of e or o. Is e or o always rejected ? Recite Rule III., for the rejection 
of final le. Recite Rule IV., for doubling the final consonant of a monosyllable. 
What consonant is never doubled ? Recite Rule V., for doubling the final conso- 
nant of a word accented on the last syllable. In what case is the final consonant 
not doubled ? Recite Rule VI., relating to the final y of a primitive. When must 
no change be made ? What is the first exception relating to final y 7 What id the 
second exception ? 



RIFLES OF SPELLING. 21 

yowel, when a suffix is added commencing with a vowel ; 
as, bestir •, bestirring. 

But in this case and the last there is no doubling, if the final consonant 
is preceded by another consonant or by two vowels : as, damp, damper? 
room, roomy ; uncurl, uncurled; defraud, defrauded, 

Rule VI. — Change the final y of a primitive to i y 
when it is preceded by a consonant and a suffix is added 
not commencing with i; as, try, tried. 

But make no change when a vowel precedes y ; as, toy, toy-ed : or 
before a suffix commencing with i ; as, try, try-ing. 

Final y is sometimes changed to e before the suffix ous ; as, plenty, 
plenteous. 

Final y is sometimes rejected before a suffix commencing with i or o: 
as, sympathy, sympath-ize ; felicity, felicit-ous. 

E i E K C I S E » 

Spell and define the following derivatives. State what change 
is made informing each, and give the rule. [Thus: — Cities — spell 
— is a derivative, meaning more than one city. The final y of the 
primitive city is changed to i before the suffix es, according to Eule 
VI., " Change the final y of a primitive," &c] Driver (drive-er) ; 
agitation ; Roman ; hindrance (hinder-ance) ; wondrous ; idly 
(idle-ly) ; horribly ; funny (fun-y) ; spotted ; quizzing ; impellest 
(impel-est) ; remittal ; jollity (jolly-ty) ; heaviness ; fanciful ; 
bounteous (bounty-ous) ; piteous ; eulogize (eulogy-ize) ; waitress ; 
loathing ; dimmer ; arrival ; demurred ; spinner ; empress ; beau- 
teous ; ugliest ; visibly ; administratrix. 



• • • 



LESSON IX. 

SYLLABICATION. 



28. In spelling, divide a word into its syllables, and 
spell and pronounce each, syllable separately. 

29. In writing, sometimes from want of room part 

28. In spelling, what must be done ? 29. In writing, what sometimes happens 9 



22 RULES OF SYLLABICATION. 

of a word has to be carried to the next line. In this 
case, divide the word after a complete syllable, and 
place a hyphen at the end of the line to connect the 
separated parts ; as, " De- 

lays are dangerous." 

30. Hence we mnst know how to divide words into 
syllables. This process is called Syllabication. 

31. Rules of Syllabication. — In syllabication, the 
ear is our chief guide. In some words, the syllables are 
so marked that they are easily distinguished, as in un- 
cer-tain-ty. In others, however, the proper division 
is not so clear, and then the following rules will prove 
of service : — 

Rule I. — Join consonants to the vowels whose sound 
fchey modify; as, mel-on, — not me-lon, because the I 
modifies the sound of the e. So, rem-e-dy, reg-u-lar-i-ty. 

Rule II. — Make prefixes distinct syllables when it 
can be done without violating Rule I. ; as, de-fine, re- 
call. 

When a vowel sound in the prefix is modified by a consonant in the 
primitive, this consonant is joined to the prefix, according to Rule I. Thus 
we divide def-i-ni-tion, not de-fi-ni-tion ; rec-om-mend, not re-eom-mend. 

Rule III. — Make suffixes distinct syllables unless 
they coalesce in sound with what precedes : as, tend-ed, 
not ten~ded; in-vest-ing, not in-ves-ting ; di-vid-ed, not 
di-vi-ded. 

But ab-horred, walked; here the suffix ed coalesces with what precedes, 
and therefore does not form a distinct syllable. 

How must the word be divided in this case ? 30. What is Syllabication ? 31. In 
dividing words into syllables, by what are we chiefly guided ? In what cases will 
rules be found necessary ? Recite Rule I., relating to consonants. Recite Rule II., 
relating to prefixes. What is done when a vowel sound in the prefix is modified 
by a consonant in the primitive ? Recite Rule III., relating to suffixes. Give ex- 
amples in which ed does not form a distinct syllable. Recite Rule IV., relating 
to compound words. Recite Rule V., relating to certain terminations, and give 



TION, 


u 


CIAL, 


u 


TIAL, 


a 


CEOUS, 


a 


GEOUS, 


u 


CIOTTS, 


44 


TIOUS, 


u 



RULES OF SYLLABICATION. 23 

Rule IV. — Make syllabic divisions between the sim- 
ple words that unite to form a compound ; as, where-as. 

Rule V. — Never divide the following terminations, 
and others that form one syllable : — 

sion, pronounced shun, as in ex-tension. 

or zhun, " vision, 

shun u mo-tion. 

shal, " spe-cial. 

shot, " pres-i-den-tirf. 

shus, " her-ba-ceous. 

jus, " cou-ra-geous. 

shus, " vi-cious. 

shus, " consci-en-tious. 

Rule YI. — When two consonants come together and 
it can be done without violating Rule III., or when a 
consonant is doubled before a vowel, divide between 
the two consonants; as, tur-ban^for-ltid-ding. 

32. Diaeresis. — Two o's generally unite to form a diphthong, as in soon y 
foot In some words, however, they do not thus unite, but belong to 
separate syllables, as in co-op-er-ate. This is shown by placing two dots, 
called a Diaeresis, over the second o (6). 

The Diaeresis consists of two dots placed over the lat- 
ter of two vowels that would otherwise form a diph- 
thong, to show that they belong to separate syllables ; 
as, cooperate, pre'existent, aeronaut. 

When one of the two vowels belongs to a prefix, a hyphen may be used 
in stead of the diaeresis ; as, co-operate, pre-existent. 

EXERCISE. 

Spell the following words, dividing them into syllables: — Calico ° 
market ; balance ; business ; inseparable ; ocean ; aerostation ; re- 
entering; destroyed; transgression; serviceable; button-hole; 

examples. Recite Rule VI., for dividing between two consonants. 32. How 
are two o's generally sounded ? How, when two dots are placed over the second 
o 1 Of what does the Diaeresis consist ? "When may the hyphen he used instead 
of the diaeresis ? 



24 FORMS OE THE LETTERS. 

giddy-brained; providential; liquorice; quotient; transientness; 
plenteously ; gorgeous; unfashionable; voracious; re-admitted; 
zoology ; reformation ; irreproachable ; apathy. 



LESSON X. 

FORMS OF THE LETTERS. 

33. Eoman LetterSc — The letters that form the bulk 
of printed matter in English were first used at Rome in 
1467. They are hence called Eoman Letters. 

34. Italics. — Besides Eoman Letters, we use others 
that slant, as in this clause. These are called Italics. 

35. Italics are often used for emphatic words, foreign 
terms, the names of vessels and newspapers, and exam- 
ples of rules or definitions. 

" / think the Evening Journal is wrong when it says that the prince 
and his valet de chambre sailed in the Cheat Western on Saturday." — Why 
is /italic? Evening Journal ? Valet de chambre ? Great Western? 

36. In the Bible, italics are used for a different purpose. The Old 
Testament was written mostly in Hebrew, the New Testament in Greek. 
When these were translated into English, it was found necessary to supply 
here and there words not found in the original languages, to make the 
meaning clearer. The words thus supplied were put in italics. 

37. Small Letters and Capitals. — Every letter has 
two forms : as, #, A ; 5, B. They are distinguished as 
Small Letters and Capitals. 

By looking at any printed page, it will be found that it consists chiefly 
of small letters, but that certain words, such as those commencing sen- 
tences, begin with capitals. Rules for the use of capitals will be given 
hereafter. 

EXERCISE. 

Spell and define the derivatives formed by uniting the Jbl- 

33. What are the letters mostly used in our English books called ? "Whence 
did they get the name ? 34. What are Italics ? 35. For what are italics used ? 36. 
For what are italics used in the Bible ? 37. How many forms has every letter ? 
What are they called t Which constitute the greater part of a printed page ? 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 25 

lowing primitives and suffixes, making such changes as are required 
ty the Rules in § 27 : — Join-er {one who joins) ; employ-er ; begin- 
er ; plunder-er ; jolly-er ; rob-er ; cobble-er ; interpret-er ; steady 
er ; steady-ing ; steady-ness ; coy-ness ; executor-ix ; fox-es 
fog-y; stay-ing; fly-ing; fly-es; vile-ly; terrible-ly; gun-ery 
censure-able; pronounce-able ; omit-ed; offer-ed; beautify-ed; 
beautify-ing ; plan-ing; plane-ing; complain-ing ; box-ing; dis=< 
agree-ing. 



LESSON XI. 

THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

38. The Parts of Speech. — Words are the signs 
of ideas. In forming sentences, we combine different 
"kinds of ideas, and therefore use different kinds of 
words. 

Little dogs and kittens play gracefully. — Observe the different uses of 
the words in this sentence. Dogs and kittens are used to designate cer- 
tain animals ; and is used to connect dogs and kittens ; little, to describe 
them ; play, to tell what they do ; gracefully, to tell how they play. 

39. The English language contains over 100,000 
words. They are divided into nine classes, called Parts 
of Speech, distinguished by the use that is made of 
them in sentences. 

40. Sentence-building. — Every thing has a name. 
There is a large class of words, therefore, made up of 
the names of things. These are called Nouns. Henry, 
Mary, dog, house, &c, are names of different things, 
and therefore nouns. 

38. What are Words ? Why do we use different kinds of words ? Point out 
'he uses of the several words in the sentence Little dogs and kittens play gracefully. 

39. How many words does the English language contain ? How are they divided? 

40. Of what does the first class of words consist ? What are the names of things 
called ? When we name an object, what further do we generally do ? What are 
word? that affirm called ? With what two parts of speech may we form a sen- 
tence ? Give an example. Do we generally stop here ? Tell what kind of dog* 



26 THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

We seldom name an object without affirming some- 
thing about it. Words that affirm, are called Yerbs. 
Henry reads — Mary sang — Dogs hark / reads, sang, 
hark, affirm something about Henry, Mary, dogs, and 
# are therefore verbs. 

We may form a sentence with a noun and verb 
alone ; as, Dogs hark. But we seldom stop here. 
Taking the noun and verb as the basis, we may join 
other words to them, to express additional ideas, and 
thus build up longer sentences. 

We may tell what kind of dogs bark. Cross dogs 
hark. Words that tell what kind of things is meant, 
are Adjectives. 

We may tell how they bark. Cross dogs hark 
loudly. Words that tell how a thing is done, are 
called Adverbs. 

The prefix ad means to. Adverb means to a verb. These words are 
so called because they are joined to verbs. The adverb loudly is joined 
to the verb bark. 

We may tell at whom they bark. Cross dogs hark 
loudly at strangers. Strangers is a noun, because it 
is a name ; and the little w r ord at, which shows the 
relation between the verb hark and the noun strangers y 
is called a Preposition. 

We may tell something else that dogs do. Cross 

dogs hark loudly at strangers and bite them. — Bite 

affirms, like hark, and is therefore a verb. And, which 

connects the two verbs, is called a Conjunction. Them 
*-_ _ 

bark. What are words that tell what kind of things is meant called? Tell how 
they bark. What are words that tell how a thing is done called ? What is the 
meaning of the word adverb ? Why are these words so called ? Tell at whom the 
dogs bark. What does the little word at show ? What is it called ? What else 
may we tell about the dogs ? What does and do ? What is it called ? How is 
them used ? What is it called ? If we mean some particular dogs and strangers, 
what word do we introduce ? What is the called ? If we wish to call attention to 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 27 

is used in stead of the noun strangers, because it would 
sound ill to say, lark loudly at strangers and bite 
strangers. Them and all other words used in stead of 
nouns are called Pronouns. 

We may mean some particular dogs and some par- 
ticular strangers. In that case we introduce the word 
the. The cross dogs baric loudly at the strangers and 
bite them. — The is called an Article. 

We may call attention to the barking of the dogs. 
Hark ! the cross dogs bark loudly at the strangers and 
bite them. Hark, and other words thrown unconnect- 
edly into a sentence, to express joy, sorrow, surprise, 
&c, are called Interjections. 

41. Summing tip. — Thus we find nine classes of words, 
or Parts of Speech : Nouns, Pronouns, Articles, Ad- 
jectives, Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, 
and Interjections. 

Every word in the language belongs to one of these nine classes. To 
find what part of speech any given word is in a sentence, see how it is 
used. This is the first thing required in Parsing. 

EXERCISE. 

What part of speech is each of the following words ? 

Hark ! the cross dogs bark loudly at the strangers and bite them. 

See ! the playful lambs frisk gracefully in the grass and nibble it. 

Lo ! the glorious sun shines brightly on the hills and illumines them. 

Give the names of all the articles you can think of that a grocer 
sells ; as } sugar, tea, soap, &c. What part of speech are these 
words ? 

Mention all the adjectives you can think of that may he joined to 
the noun boy ; as, a cross boy, a good boy, a pretty boy, &e. 

Mention all the verbs you can think of that may be joined to 
the horse; as, the horse neighs, the horse trots, the horse eats, &c. 

the barking of the dogs, what do we say ? What is hark called ? 41. To sum up, 
bow many parts of speech have we found ? Name them What is the first thing 
required in parsing ? 



28 THE NOUN. 

Mention all the adverbs you can think of that may he joined to 
the horse trots ; as, the horse trots slowly, awkwardly, &c. 



LESSON XII. 

NOUNS AND THEIR CLASSES. 

42. The Noun. — The first part of speech is the 
JSToim. 

A Noun is a word used as a name. 

43. The names of persons are nouns; as, Eve, Saul, La Fayette, 
Earl Gray, General Jackson, Miss Ellen Fry. 

The names of places, countries, mountains, &c, are nouns ; as, city, 
town, village, hill, ocean, Belgium, Louisville, Sahara, Rocky Mountains, 
Atlantic Ocean. 

The names of things that can be seen, heard, felt, &c, are nouns ; as, 
ice, thunder, books, heat, tables, whispering. 

The names of things that are not seen, &c, but simply thought of, are 
nouns ; as, science, falsehood, temperance, diligence. 

The names of letters, figures, numbers, characters, &c, are nouns; as, 
Em is a consonant ; six and two are eight ; plus indicates addition. Em, 
six, two, eight, plus, are nouns. 

Any word used merely as a word is a noun. When it is so used, the 
word may be introduced before it ; as> " Gracefully is derived from grace- 
ful [that is, The word gracefully is derived from the word graceful]." 
" Many spell [the word] busy wrong." Here, gracefully, graceful, and 
busy, are nouns. 

44. Classification of Nouns. — All objects of the 
same kind have the same general name. To distinguish 
objects of the same kind, we give each a name of its 
own not applicable to the rest of its class. 

Thus all great elevations of land are called mountains. But particular 
mountains are distinguished by particular names ; as, Mount Washington, 

42. What is the first part of speech ? What is a Noun ? 43. Specify some of 
the different names embraced among nouns, and give examples. When is any 
word a noun ? How can we tell when a word is used merely as a word ? Give 
examples. 44. What objects have the same general name ? How do we distin- 
guish objects of the same kind ? Illustrate this. It follows that there are how 






COMMON AND PROPER NOUNS. 29 

Mount Fairweather, the Alps, the Pyrenees. Hence there are two kinds 
of nouns, the names of classes and the names of individuals. 

45. Nouns are either Common or Proper. 

A Common Noun is a name that may be applied tc 
all objects of the same kind ; as, boy, nation, country* 
island, dog. 

A Proper Bonn is the name of an individual object^ 
which can not be applied to all others of the same 
kind ; as, Richard, (the) Danes, Peru, Ireland, Carlo. 

46. Several individuals may have the same name. There are many 
boys called Richard, many dogs called Carlo. But since all boys are 
not called Richard, nor all dogs Carlo, Richard and Carlo are proper 
nouns. 

47. The names of nations, though belonging in common to many indi- 
viduals, distinguish one body of people from all others of the same kind. 
They are therefore proper nouns, whether applied to all that compose the 
nation, or to single individuals ; as, the Germans, a Turk. 

48. Proper nouns always begin with capitals. See 
the above examples. 

49. A noun usually common becomes proper, 

1. When it denotes a particular event, place, &c, more conspicuous 
or familiar than others of the same name ; as the Creation, the Square, 
the Channel (meaning the English Channel). 

2. When it denotes an inanimate object personified, that is, addressed 
or spoken of as a person ; as, " Numberless are thy blessings, Health!" 
" Winter wraps his white cloak about him." " Hope whispers in the ears 
of the young." — Here Health, Winter, Hope, are personified. They 
must be parsed as proper nouns, and must commence with capitals. 

EXERCISE. 

Mention the nouns and their class : — Seven metals were known 
to the ancients ; namely, gold, silver, iron, copper, tin, lead, and 
mercury. — Mercury is nearer the Sun than any other planet. — 

many kinds of nouns ? 45. Name the two classes of nouns. What is a Common 
Noun ? What is a Proper Noun ? 46. Is a name belonging to several individuals 
common or proper? Why so? 47. What do the names of nations distinguish? 
Are they common or proper nouns ? 48. How must proper nouns always begin ? 



30 SUBDIVISIONS OF COMMON NOUNS. 

Homer was a great poet. — John Milton is the Homer of Eng- 
lish literature. — Noah, and his three sons, Shem, Ham, and Japhet, 
with their wives, survived the Flood. — Pleasure tries to entice 
the young from the paths of virtue. — The Channel is noted for 
its rough weather, as travellers going from England to France 
often learn to their disgust. 



LESSON XIII. 

SUBDIVISIONS OF COMMON NOUNS. 

50. Common Nouns embrace Collective, Participial, 
Diminutive, and Abstract Nouns. 

51. A Collective Hoim is the name of a body or col- 
lection of individuals ; as, nation, mob, society, jury, 
herd, swarm. 

52. The name of a collection of objects without life is not, in most 
cases, a collective noun. Pile, heap, mass, perfumery, furniture, stationery, 
&c, are simply common and not collective nouns. 

53. A Participial Koun is the name of an action or 
state, ending in ing ; as, " Seeing is believing" 

54. A Diminutive Noun is the name of something 
small of its kind, derived from a primitive by the addi- 
tion of a suffix. 

Diminutives are formed with the suffixes kin, let, ling, ock, ule, cule, 
cle, icle, et, or aster, meaning a little. Streamlet (a little stream), gosling 
(a young goose), animalcule (a little animal), are diminutives. 

55. An Abstract Noun is the name of a quality or 
property; as, obstinacy, benevolence, smoothness, sour 

ness. 



49. "What is the first case in which a noun usually common becomes propel* 
What is the second case ? How must the names of objects personified be parsed? 
How must they commence ? 

50. What classes are embraced among common nouns ? 51. What is a Collect- 
ive Noun ? 52. Are pile, heap, furniture, collective nouns ? "Why not ? 53. What 
is a Participial Noun ? 54. What is a Diminutive Noun ? Mention the suffixes 



EXERCISE ON NOUNS. 31 

56, Proper nouns are said to be Complex, when they 
consist of several names, or a name and title ; as, Wil- 
liam Henry Harrison , Lord Edward Talbot. 

EXERCISE. 

Mention the nouns and their class. [Thus: — North Carolina is, 
a complex proper noun ; blackbirds is a common noun ; flocks is a 
collective common noun, &c] In North Carolina blackbirds are 
sometimes seen in flocks a mile long.— Musk is obtained from the 
musk-deer, an animal of great agility, found in Siberia and on the 
Himalaya Mountains.— Certain tribes of Asia are tormented by 
swarms of ants, which march through their dwellings in little 
armies.— The sweetness, beauty, and modesty of the violet make 
me admire it more than any other floweret.— Lying and swearing 
are marks of a base mind. 

Complete the following sentences by supplying such nouns as are 
indicated : — The (proper noun) and (proper) are rivers of North 
America.— A soldier should have great (abstract) and (abstract). — 
A poultry-yard contains many (collective) of chickens, (common), 
and (diminutive). — Immense (collective) of bees and (collective) of 
horses are found in the (common) of Texas. — Crossing a (diminu- 
tive), we saw before us a verdant (common). — Sir John Franklin 
and (complex proper) distinguished themselves by explorations in 
the Arctic (common). — Promenading, (participial), and (parti- 
cipial), are the principal amusements at a watering-place. 



LESSON XIV. 

THE PERSON OF NOUNS. 

57. Observe these three sentences : — 

I, James, promise to go. 
James, do you promise to go ? 
James promises to go. 
In the first sentence, James is represented as speaking ; in the second, 

with which diminutives are formed. 55. What is an Abstract Noun ? 56. When 
are proper nouns said to be Complex ? 

57. Repeat the three sentences presented. How is James represented in the 



32 PEKSON OF NOUNS. 

as spoken to ; in the third, as spoken of. To denote these three different 
relations, we say that in the first sentence the noun James is in the first 
person ; in the second, it is in the second person ; in the third, in the third 
person. Every noun must be in one of these three persons. 

58. Person is that property which distinguishes ob- 
jects as speaking, spoken to, or spoken of. 

59. There are three Persons ; the First, the Second, 
and the Third. 

The First Person denotes the speaker ; the Second 
Person, the object spoken to ; the Third Person, the ob- 
ject spoken of. 

First Perso?i. — I, John Adams, president of the United States. — We 
mortals are short-lived. — Written by the hand of me, Timothy. — There is 
little virtue in us men. 

Second Person. — John Adams, you were once president of the United 
States. — short-lived mortals I — Go to, thou fool I — Answer me, ye friends 
of liberty. 

Third Person. — I, John Adams, am president of the United States. — 
All mortals are short-lived. — The fool laughs at his own folly. — Ye are but 
pilgrims in the land. 

60. It will be seen from these examples that a noun has the same form 
in all three persons. We can not, therefore, tell its person by its form, 
but must ask whether it denotes an object speaking, spoken to, or spoken of. 

61. Most of the nouns met with in sentences are in 
the third person. The names of things without life are 
always in the third person, unless they are personified. 

62. The third person is sometimes used for the first. Thus Winchester 
says, " As will the rest, so willeth Winchester? — in stead of "so will I. n 
Here Winchester uses his own name as that of a person spoken of, and the 
noun Winchester is in the third person. 

first sentence ? How, in the second ? How, in the third ? How do we denote 
these different relations ? 58. What is Person ? 59. Name the persons. What ip 
denoted by the First Person ? What, by the Second ? What, by the Third ? Give 
examples of each. 60. What will be seen from these examples ? How are we to 
tell the person of a noun ? 61. What is the person of most nouns ? Of what per- 
son are the names of things without life ? 62. For what is the third person some- 



NUMBER. 33 

63. The third person is also sometimes used for the second. Thus, 
u Let not my lord [third person] be angry with his servant ; " where the 
meaning is, "My lord [second person], be not angry with thy servant." 

64. In formal letters and invitations, the third person is often thus used 
for both the first and the second. Thus, M The Secretary of State has the 
honor to acknowledge receipt of Gov. Winter ] s favor of the 3d instant, and 
begs leave to reply," &c. This is more formal than if the Secretary were 
to write : — u /have the honor to acknowledge receipt of your favor of the 
3d instant, and beg leave to reply," &c. 

EXEECI SE. 

Mention the nouns, their class, and person. [Thus: — Travelling 
is a participial common noun, in the third person.] Travelling is 
sometimes hard work. — The last words of Mohammed were : — " O 
God, pardon my sins ! Yes, I come among my fellow-citizens on 
high." — Angels and ministers of grace, defend us! — How full of 
sorrow was the breast of the Indian chief Logan, when he ex- 
claimed: — "Who is there to mourn for Logan? Kot one." — 
Leading the way over a hillock which lay before his regiment, he 
cried, "Come on, my men; I, your colonel, will be the first to 
meet the foe." — We Americans do every thing in a hurry ; you 
Germans have more patience and deliberation. 



LESSON XV. 

THE NUMBER OF NOUXS. 

One year. 

Two years ; five years ; ten years ; a thousand years. 

65. Observe, in these expressions, that when one is spoken of, the word 
year is used ; when more than one are referred to, the form changes to 
years. 

66. Number is that property which distinguishes ob- 
jects as denoting one or more than one. 

times used? Give an example. 63. For what else is the third person sometimes 
used ? 64. In what is the third person often thus used for both the first and the 
second ? Give an example. 

65. What is to be observed when we say one year, two years, Jive years 7 



34 FORMATION OF THE PLURAL. 

67. There are two numbers, the Singular and the 
Plural. 

The Singular denotes one ; the Plural, more than one. 

68. Formation of the Plural. — Rule I — To form 
the plural, most nouns add s to the singular: as, 
hat, hate; dwarf, dwarfs; money, moneys; cuckoo, 
cuckoos. 

Tli final is sounded as in think. In some words in which these final 
letters are preceded by a Towel, when 5 is added for the plural, their 
sound changes to that of th in this : as, path, paths ; wreath, wreaks ; 
oath, oaths. 

Rule II — Nouns ending as follows take es to form 
their plural : — 

1. In ch not sounded like Jc ; as, torch, torches. 

2. In s and sh: as, gas, gas<?s ; gash, gash&s. 

3. In x and z : as, tax, tax^s ; waltz, waltz&s. 

4. In % o, or u, preceded by a consonant : as, alkali, 
alkalis; cargo, cargoes; gnu, gmies. 

Exceptions in o. — Canto, cantos; duo-decimo, duo-decimos ; grotto, 
grottos; halo, halos; junto, juntos; lasso, lassos; major-domo, major- 
domos ; memento, mementos ; octavo, octavos ; portico, porticos ; quarto, 
quartos : sirocco* siroccos ,• solo, solos ; tyro, tyros. 

5. Common nouns in y preceded by a consonant take 
eS) and in so doing change their final y to i {Rule VI, 
p. 21) : as, fly, Hies ; obloquy, obloquies. 

Observe that in the last example u following q has the sound of w 
\ob\okwy\, and is therefore a consonant. 

Rule III — The following nouns ending in/* and fe 

66, What is Kumber ? 67. Name the numbers. What does the Singular denote ! 
The Plural? 68. How is the plural of most nouns formed (Rule I.)? What re- 
mark is made about nouns ending in th 7 What nouns take es to form their plural ? 
Mention the exceptions in 0, that form their plural with s alone. How do common 
nouns in y preceded by a consonant form their plural ? How is it that obloquy falls 
under this rule ? How do eleven nouns in f and three in fe form their plural 



FORMATION OF THE PLURAL. 35 

form their plural by changing f or fe into ves : beef, 
beeves; leaf, leaves; sheaf, shears; thief, thieves; 
loaf, loaves ; calf, calves ; half, halves ; elf, elves; self ? 
selves ; shelf, shells / wolf, "wolves ; life, lives ; knife^ 
knives; wife, wi^&s. 

Wliarf makes both wharfs and wharves. 

Staff (a cane) makes sta^s and staves. In the second form the a has 
the same sound as in the first, to distinguish the word, when pronounced,' 
from the plural of stave. All the compounds of staff , and staff itself 
when it means a body of military officers, form the plural by adding s ; 
as, tipstaff, tipstaffs. 

Rule IV. — Most proper nouns takes to form their 
plural : as, Cato, the Catos / Antony, the Antonys. 

Proper nouns ending in s and x take es to form their 
plural : as, Yenus, the Venus^s; Ajax, the Ajax<?s. 

Some proper nouns ending in y, in frequent use, form their plural by 
changing y into ies : as, Sicily, the SiciKes ; Ptolemy, the Ptolennes. 

EXE SCIS E« 

Spell and define the plural of the following words : [Thus : — 
d-a-y-s, more than one day.] Day ; table ; niche ; search ; beach ; 
guess ; atlas ; sash ; brush ; fox ; quiz ; rabbi ; halo ; echo ; 
grotto; solo; colloquy; calf; chief; knife; stave; staff (cane); 
distaff; Henry; Emily; Sicily; Pythagoras; Hercules; Con- 
fucius ; Nero ; monarch ; roof ; balcony ; bench ; trio ; Judas ; 
Cicero ; shelf ; gulf ; (a general's) staff ; sofa ; cadi ; dahlia ; 
fuchsia. 

Spell the singular : — Cobblers ; chimneys ; enigmas ; sepulchres* 
porte-monnaies ; mementos ; selves ; safes ; stitches ; enemies ; 
hoofs ; follies ; canoes ; folios ; twos ; toes ; hippopotamuses ; the 
Rosciuses ; the Alleghanies ; the Colfaxes. 

(Rule III.) ? Give these nouns. What does wharf make in the plural ? What 
does staff, a cane, make ? What does staff, a body of military officers, make ? 
What do the compounds of staff make ? How do most proper nouns form their 
plural ? How do proper nouns ending in s and x form their plural ? How do some 
proper noun§ ending in y form their plural ? 



36 



NOUNS IRKEGULAR IN THE PLURAL. 



LESSON XVI. 



IRREGULAR PLURALS. 



Child, 


children. 


Foot, 


feet. 


Goose, 


geese. 



lice. 


Ox, 


oxen. 


mice. 


Tooth, 


teeth. 


men. 


Woman, 


women. 



69. Nouns Irregular in the Plural. — The follow- 
ing nouns are irregular in the plural : — 

Sing. Plu. Sing. Plu. Sing. Plu. 

Louse, 
Mouse, 
Man, 

TO. Compounds in which these words stand last, form their plural 
similarly : as, boatman, boatmen ; eye-tooth, eye-teeth ; gentlewoman, 
gentleivomen. Words that end in man, but are not compounds of the 
word man, form their plural regularly by annexing s : as, German, Ger- 
mans ; caiman, caimans. 

71. Cow, which now makes cows, formerly made kine. 

72. Double Plural Forms. — The following nouns 
have both a regular and an irregular plural, with differ- 
ent meanings : — 



Singular. Regular Plural. 

Brother, brothers (of a family), 

Die, dies (stamps for coining), 

Genius, geniuses (men of genius), 

Head, heads (parts of the body), 

Index, indexes (tables of contents), 

Pea, peas (distinct grains), 

Penny, pennies (distinct coins), 

Sail, -sails (pieces of canvas), 



Irregular Plural, 
brethren (of a society). 
dice (cubes for gaming). 
genii (spirits). 
head (of cattle). 
indices (algebraic exponents). 
pease (taken in bulk). 
pence (an amount of money). 
sail (vessels). 



73. Nouns Alike in both Numbers. — The following 
are alike in both numbers : — Alms, hass (a fish), bellows, 



69. What does child make in the plural ? Foot 7 Goose 7 Mouse 7 Man 7 0x7 
Tooth 7 Woman 7 70. What compounds of these words form their plural simi- 
larly ? How do words that end in man, but are not compounds of the word man, 
form their plural ? What is the plural of boatman 7 German 7 71. What is the 
plural of cow7 72. What are the two plurals of brother, and their meaning? Of 
die 7 Genius 7 Head 7 Index 7 Pea 7 Penny 7 Sail 7 73. Mention the nouns alike 



NOraS IRREGULAR IN THE PLURAL. 37 

cannon, corps (pronounced Tcore in the singular, Jcores in 
the plural), deer, grouse, hose (old plural, hosen), means, 
odds, rest (that which remains, those who remain), 
salmon, series, sheep, species, superficies, swine, vermin 
(seldom used in the singular). 

14. Summons makes both summons and summonses in the plural', 
gallows, gallows and gallowses ; heathen, heathen and heathens. 

75. Fish makes fish, and less frequently fishes. Fish should always be 
used when a quantity is spoken of, and not a number of individuals ; as, 
a good mess of fish. — The compounds of fish are alike in both numbers ; 
as, two cod-fish, six sword-fish, many shell-fish. 

The names of different kinds of fish have, for the most part, two 
plurals; one (commonly used) like the singular, and a regular form in s or 
es. Thus, herring, herring and herrings ; mackerel, mackerel and mack- 
erels, &c. When a quantity is spoken of, the unchanged form should be 
used : as, a hundred barrels of mackerel ; a basketful of trout. 

So, the word fowl and the names of certain materials, besides their 
regular plurals in s, take a plural form like the singular when they are 
spoken of in bulk: as, flocks of sea-fowl ; altars of brick; a load of plank. 

76. Brace, dozen, pair, and score, besides their regular plural in s, take 
a form like the singular, when preceded by a word expressing number. 
We say, fifty brace of pheasants, two dozen of ale, four pair of stairs, three 
score and ten ; but, fowls are sold in pairs, pheasants in braces ; they came 
by dozens and scores. 

77. Plural of Figures, &c. — The plural of figures, 
letters, characters, &c, is formed by annexing an apos- 
trophe and s ('<§) ; as, "She must make her 4? 8, k's, + J s, 
and fs better." 

EXERCISE. 

Form the plural: — Foster-child; club-foot; beangoose; field- 
anouse ; madman ; musk-ox ; wisdom-tooth ; tooth-brush ; horse- 

,in both numbers. 74. What does summons make in the plural ? Gallows 7 Heathen ? 
15. Fish 7 When should fish be used for the plural ? What do the compounds 
offish make in the plural ? What do the names of different kinds of fish make in 
the plural? Which form should be used when a quantity is spoken of? What 
other words follow the same rule as fish in their plural ? 76. What is said of the 
plural of brace, dozen, pair, and score 7 Illustrate this. 77. How is the plural of 
figures, letters, characters, Ac, formed? 



38 PLURAL OF COMPOUND NOUNS. 

woman ; policeman ; Turcoman ; bellows ; sea-bass ; musk-deer ; 
sun-fish; sturgeon; blackfish; water- fowl; the mayor's [brothers 
or brethren ?] ; the [brothers or brethren ?] of the Independent Order 
of Odd Fellows ; back-gammon is played with [dies or dice ?] ; Ad- 
dison and the other [geniuses or genii ?] of Queen Anne's reign ; 
good [geniuses or genii ?] protect thee ; twenty [heads or head ?] of 
oxen; the [indexes or indices?] of these books are imperfect; a bushel 
of [peas or pease f] ; four [peas or pease f] in a pod ; he owes me 
two [pennies or pence ?] ; two bad [pennies or pence ?] ; the [sails 
or sail?] are set ; a fleet of twenty-five [sails or sail?]. 



LESSON XVII. 

PLURAL OF COMPOUND AND COMPLEX NOUNS. 

78. Elements of Compound Words. — The simple 
words that enter into a compound word are called its 
Elements. 

In some compounds, these elements are of equal im- 
portance, as in piano-forte. In others, there is one 
leading element, which the others merely modify ; as in 
sister-in-law, hanger-on, in which sister and hanger are 
the leading elements. 

79. Plural of Compound Nouns. — Compound Nouns, 
to form their plural, generally vary their principal ele- 
ment : as, step-son, step-sons / woman-hater, woman- 
haters / sister - in - law, sisters - in - law ; knight-errant, 
knights-errant ; cousin-german, cousins-germem ; hang- 
er-on, hangers-on ; aide-de-camp, aides-de-camp ; billet- 
doux, billets-doux ; charge-d'-affaires, charges-d' -affaires ; 
chef-d'-oeuvre, chefs-d'-ceuvre. 

78. What is meant by the Elements of a compound word ? What difference 
Is noted with respect to the elements of words ? 79. How do compound nouns 
generally form their plural? Give examples. 80. What compounds take the 
plu/al termination at the end? 81. What is the plural of man-child? Manser- 



PLURAL OF COMPLEX PROPER NOUNS. 39 

80. Compounds ending in ful, those formed of ele- 
ments of equal importance, and some foreign com- 
pounds in common use, take the plural termination at 
the end ; as, pailfuls, penny-a-liners, jack-a-lanterns ? 
habeas-corpus^, ipse-dixiis. 

81. The following compounds vary both elements : — - 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

Man-child, men-children. [Woman-singer, women-singers. 

Man-servant, men-servants. Knight-templar, knights-templars. 

Man-singer, men-singers. Knight-baronet, knights-baronets. 

Woman-servant, women-servants. Knight-hospitaller, knights-hospital- 
lers. 

82. Plural of Complex Proper Nouns. — "When 
complex proper nouns are preceded by the, and denote 
a whole class having the character of an individual, the 
last name takes the plural termination ; as, " The Sir 
Isaac ISTewtons of the present century". 

83. In all other cases, the title alone, when there is 
one, should be pluralized : as, Governors Morgan, Hicks, 
and Purdy ; Mayors White and Kenny ; the Misses 
and Masters Davies ; the Messrs. Plum. 

84. Parse such expressions thus : Governors is a proper noun, in the 
third person, plural number. Morgan, Hicks, and Purdy, are proper 
nouns, in the third, singular. Misses {Davies) is a complex proper noun, 
in the third, plural. Masters Davies is a complex proper noun, in the 
third, plural. Messrs. Plum is a complex proper noun, in the third, 
plural. 

85. In cases like the last two examples in § 83, usage differs. Some 
pluralize the name and not the title, particularly when a word expressing 
number precedes, or when the title is Mrs., which has no distinct plural 
form ; as, the three Mr. Plums, the Mrs. Plums. Others, again, pluralize 
both title and name ; as, the Messrs. Plums. This is decidedly wrong. 

rant! Man-singer 7 "Woman-servant 7 Woman-singer 7 Knight-templar 7 Knight- 
baronet 7 Knight-hospitaller 7 82. When do complex proper nouns take the plural 
termination at the end ? 83. In other cases, how do complex proper nouns consist* 
ing partly of a title form their plural ? 84. How are such expressions parsed ? 
85. What difference of usage is mentioned in forming the plural of complex proper 



40 PLURAL OF COMPLEX PROPER NOUNS. 

It seems preferable in all cases to pluralize the title alone : — 

1. Because uniformity is desirable, and there are some cases in which 
no other form will answer ; as, Mayors White and Kenny, Misses Sarah 
and Augusta Grey. 

2. Because then we show the exact spelling of the name, which might 
otherwise be mistaken. 

3. Because we thus sometimes avoid awkward variations of the 
proper name, such as the Miss Perkinses, the Mr. Youngses, the Master 
Davieses. 

86. The title Mrs. (an abbreviation of tnistress, pronounced missis) 
is alike in both numbers ; as, Mrs. Hay, the two Mrs. Hay. 

EXERCISE. 

Form the plural: — Brother-in-law; step-daughter; holder- 
forth ; court-martial ; court-marshal ; account-book ; backwoods- 
man ; chimney-sweeper ; quartermaster-general ; basketful ; tin- 
der-box ; goose-quill ; camera-obscura ; tete-a-tete ; man-ser- 
vant ; the Julius Ca9sar {pi.) and Peter the Great {pi.) of modern 
times ; General Burgoyne and Gates ; the Earl of Northumber- 
land and Devonshire ; Lord Hastings and Grey ; Alderman Brady 
and Jones ; the Miss Packard ; Master George and Henry Talbot ; 
the Mrs. Montague. 



LESSON XVIII. 

PLURAL OF FOREIGN NOUNS. 

87. Foreign Nouns.- — Foreign nouns are nouns in* 
troduced into English from other languages without 
change. As regards their plural, they may be divided 
into three classes : — 

1. Those that take the regular English plural; as, 
asylum, asylums. 

2. Those that take both the foreign and the regular 
English plural ; as, cherub, cherubim and cherubs. 

nouns consisting partly of a title? Which is approved as the best form? For 
what three reasons ? 86. What is the plural of Mrs. ? 

87. What are Foreign Nouns ? As regards their plural, how may they he di- 



PLURAL OF FOREIGN NOUNS. 



41 



3. Scientific and rare words, which have the foreign 
plural only ; as, ellipsis, ellipses. 

88. Rules for the Plural of Foreign Kouns. — In 
forming foreign plurals, the following rules apply : — The 
termination 

A becomes m, sometimes ata : larva, larv<£ ; miasma, miasmata, 
Is becomes es, sometimes ides : axis, axes ; apsis, apsides. 
Us becomes i ; magus, magi : — but, ge'nus, geriera. 
Um and on become a: datum, data; phenomena, phenomena. 
Ex and ix become ices ; vort&c, vortices ; he'h'cc, hel'ices. 
O becomes i ; virtuoso, virtuosi. 

89. Table. — The following Table contains the most 
important nouns that retain their foreign plural. The 
letter R. after the foreign form indicates that the word 
has also the regular English plural ; as, beau, heaux and 
leans. 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Alumnus, 


alumni. 


Calculus, 


calculi. 


Amanuensis, 


amanuenses. 


Ca'lyx, 


calyces, R. 


Analysis, 


analyses. 


Cherub, 


cherubim*, R„ 


Animalculum, 


animalcula. 


Chrys'alis, 


chrysal'ides. 


Antithesis, 


antitheses. 


Cica'da, 


cicadas. 


Apex, 


ap'ices, R. 


Cicerone, 


ciceroni, R. 


Aphelion, 


aphelia. 


Crisis, 


crises. 


Appendix, 


appen'dices, R. 


Criterion, 


criteria, R. 


Aquarium, 


aquaria, R. 


Datum, 


data. 


Arcanum, 


arcana. 


Desideratum, 


desiderata 


Automaton, 


automata, R. 


Diaeresis, 


diaereses. 


Axis, 


axes. 


Effluvium, 


effluvia. 


Banditto, 


banditti. 


Ellipsis, 


ellipses. 


Basis, 


bases. 


Encomium, 


encomia, R. 


Beau, 


beaux, R. 


Ephem'eris, 


ephemer'ides. 


* The double plurals, cherubims s 


nd seraphims, should "be avoided. 



vided ? 88. What do foreign nouns in a make in the plural ? Foreign nouns in is 7 
Foreign nouns in us 7 Foreign nouns in um and on 7 Foreign nouns in ex and ix 7 
Foreign nouns in o 7 89. What is the plural of apex 7 Aquarium ? Beau 7 Cherubl 
Seraph 7 Madame 7 Mr. 7 Radius 7 Focus 7 Criterion 7 



42 



PLUKAL OF FOKEIGN NOUNS. 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Erratum, 


errata. 


Nucleus, 


nuclei, R. 


Focus, 


foci. 


Oasis, 


oases. 


Formula, 


formulae, R. 


Parenthesis, 


parentheses. 


Fulcrum, 


fulcra, R. 


Parhelion, 


parhelia. 


Fungus, 


fungi, R. 


Perihelion, 


perihelia. 


Ge'nus, 


gen'era. 


Phasis, 


phases. 


Gymnasium, 


gymnasia, R. 


Phenomenon^ 


phenomena. 


He'lix, 


hel'ices. 


Radius, 


radii, R. 


Herbarium, 


herbaria, R. 


Rostrum, 


rostra. 


Hypothesis, 


hypotheses. 


Sarcophagus, 


sarcophagi, R. 


Ignis fatuus, 


ignes fatui. 


Scholium, 


scholia, R. 


Lamina, 


laminae. 


Seraph, 


seraphim, R. 


Larva, 


larvae. 


Spectrum, 


spectra. 


Madame, 


mesdames. 


Speculum, 


specula. 


Magus, 


magi. 


Sta'men, 


stam'ina, R. 


Medium, 


media, R. 


Stimulus, 


stimuli. 


Memorandum, 


memoranda, R. 


Stratum, 


strata, R. 


Menstruum, 


menstrua. 


Synopsis, 


synopses. 


Metamor'phosis 


, metamorphoses. 


Terminus, 


termini. 


Miasma, 


miasmata. 


Thesis, 


theses. 


Momentum, 


momenta, R. 


Vertebra, 


vertebrae. 


Monsieur, 


messieurs. 


Vertex, 


vertices, R. 


Mr., 


messrs. 


Virtuoso, 


virtuosi, R. 


Nebula, 


nebulae. 

EXER 


Vortex, 
CISE. 


vortices, R. 



Change the following incorrect plurals to the proper form :— 
Vallies; bambooes; embargos; bufialos; grottoes; soloes; ener- 
gys ; soliloquys ; sea-calfs ; loafs ; flag-staves ; the Scipio's ; the 
Brutus's ; the Alleghanys ; talismen ; Musselmen ; dollars are 
stamped with heavy dice ; the ancients believed in good and bad 
geniuses ; ten pennies a yard ; two good fence ; we must buy new 
sail for the vessel ; son-in-laws ; men-slayer ; going-forths ; spoons- 
ful ; knight-templars ; cannons ; bellowses ; specieses ; a large 
haul of shads and herrings ; ^.ve weak fishes ; a bagful of water- 
fowls; twelve pairs of gloves; eight scores; the General Knox 
and Gates ; the Miss Maria and Susan Whites ; the three Masters 
Higginses ; Messrs. Aliens ; stimuluses ; erratums ; geni ; phenom- 
enas ; crisises ; ellipsides ; myrmida (ons) ; octaga. 



NOUNS NOT USED IN" BOTH NUMBERS. 



43 



LESSON XIX. 

NOUNS NOT USED IN BOTH NUMBERS. 

90. Some nouns are found in but one number. 

91. Singular Nouns. — The following nouns have no 
plural : — 

1. Many abstract nouns, the names of virtues, vices, 
and properties ; as, courage, idleness, cohesion, round- 
ness. 

2. The names of many arts, sciences, and diseases ; 
as, architecture, rhetoric, bronchitis. 

3. The names of many articles sold by weight or 
measure ; as, flax, lard, lead, cider, milk, pitch, rye. 
Some of these, however, take a regular plural when 
different kinds are spoken of; as, the teas of China, the 
silks of India. 

92. The word neivs is singular. Apocrypha, hysterics, measles, and 
the names of sciences ending in ics (as, mechanics, hydraulics, politics, 
Ac), having a plural form, are by some used as plural ; others, with better 
reason, make them singular, as they convey singular ideas. 

93. Plural Nouns. — The following nouns have no 
singular now in good use : — 



Aborigines 


Calends 


Greens 


Minutiae 


Suds 


Annals 


Cattle 


Grounds (dregs' 


) Morals 


Teens 


Antipodes 


Clothes 


Hatches 


Nones 


Thanks 


Archives 


Dregs 


Headquarters 


Nuptials 


Tidings 


Ashes 


Eaves 


Ides 


Paraphernalia Trowsers 


Assets 


Embers 


Lees 


Ravellings 


Vespers 


Belles-lettres 


Entrails 


Literati 


Regalia 


Victuals 


Billiards 


Filings 


Mammalia 


Riches 


Vitals 


Bitters 


Fireworks 


Manners 


Shambles 


Wages 


Breeches 


Goods 


Matins 


Spectacles 


Withers 



90. What is said about some nouns, as regards number? 91. Name three 
classes of nouns not used in the plural. When do some articles sold by weight or 
measure take a plural ? 92. In what number is news ? What is the number of 
apocrypha, measles, and names of sciences in ics? 93. Mention some of the most 
common nouns that have no singular. What names may be added to thiu list I 



4:4: GENDER OF NOUNS. 

To these may be added colors (banners), drawers (an article of cloth 
ing), letters (literature), the names of instruments composed of two parts 
(as, compasses, scissors, tongs, tweezers, &c), and the scientific names of 
many orders and families of beasts, birds, fish, and insects. 

EXEECISE. 
Mention the nouns, their class, person, and number. [Thus :— « 
Banditti is a common noun, in the third person, plural number.] 
The banditti, both horse and foot, entered the town, carried off 
twenty head of cattle, and put to death the Count of Orsini's 
brothers. — You Laplanders have large herds of reindeer. — Codfish 
and mackerel are caught in great numbers near Newfoundland. — 
Great crises produce great geniuses, as the annals of many people 
will show. — Jack-o'-lanterns, or as they are otherwise called ignes 
fatui, consist of luminous gases that rise in marshy places. — 
Elizabeth, Anne, and Victoria, rank among the best of the Eng- 
lish sovereigns. — Generals Greene and Sullivan took part in the 
battle of Brandywine.— The Marquis of La Fayette had five corps 
of infantry and two small cannon. 



LESSON XX. 

THE GENDER OF NOUNS. 

Boy Girl 

Lion Lioness 

Man-singer Woman-singer 

94. Compare the words in the first column with those opposite to them in 
the second. The former denote males ; the latter, females. Some nouns, 
therefore, indicate the sex of the objects they represent. 

95. Gender is that property which distinguishes ob- 
jects as male or female. 

96. There are two genders, the Masculine and the 
Feminine. 



94. Look at the words in the two columns. What do those in the first column 
denote? Those in the second ? What, therefore, do some nouns indicate ? 95. What 
SsG-ender? 96. Name the genders. What does the Masculine Gender denote 9 



NOUNS DESTITUTE OF GENDER. 45 

The Masculine Gender denotes males ; the Feminine, 
females. 

97. Nouns Destitute of Gender. — Many norms are 
destitute of gender. Things without life are neither 
male nor female ; hence the nouns that represent them 
have no gender. 

98. Things without life, however, are sometimes personified, — that is, 
spoken to or of as persons. Thus we say, " Murder stalks through the 
land." " Here Sorrow sits, veiling her eyes." Fierce, vast, and sublime 
objects (as Anger, Time, Revenge) are personified as males, and their 
names become masculine. Gentle, delicate, and beautiful objects (as 
Hope, Evening, Plenty) are personified as females, and their names be- 
come feminine. 

99. Common Gender. — The gender of the words pre- 
sented at the commencement of this lesson is perceived 
at once. It is not so, however, with every noun that 
has gender. Thus neighbor may denote either male or 
female. 

"When there is no way of determining which sex is 
meant, the noun is either masculine or feminine, which 
we express briefly by saying that it is of the common 
gender. A noun in the plural that represents both 
sexes, is also of the common gender. 

100. The gender of a noun which of itself may represent either sex 
may be determined by some word referring to it. He, his, or him, shows 
it to be masculine ; she or her, feminine. Observe the gender of the 
noun neighbor in the following examples : — 

Common Gender. — Love thy neighbor as thyself. 

" " Love your neighbors as yourselves. 

Masculine Gend. — My neighbor has gone to his father's. 
Feminine Gender. — My neighbor has gone to her father's. 

What, the Feminine ? 97. What nouns are generally destitute of gender ? 98. How 
are things without life sometimes spoken to or spoken of? Give examples. What 
kind of objects are personified as males ? What gender do their names become ? 
What objects are personified as females ? What gender do their names become ? 
99. When is a noun said to be of the common gender 7 WTiat gender is a noun in 
the plural that represents both sexes 'i 100. How may the gender of a Boun some- 



46 GENDER OF COLLECTIVE NOUNS. 

101. Masculine nouns, and some feminines also, may be used without 
reference to sex. They then represent an entire class consisting of both 
sexes. Thus : — " The tiger lies in wait for his prey." " The world is full of 
heroes.'''' " Every passenger must hold his own ticket." " Geese are long- 
lived birds." — Here tiger, heroes, and passenger, are masculine, and geese 
is feminine ; yet we mean the tigress as well as the tiger, heroines as well 
as heroes, every female as well as every male passenger, and ganders as 
well as geese. 

102. Gender of Collective ISTouns. — A collective 
noun denotes a body of living individuals. These indi- 
viduals may be spoken of as a whole or separately. If 
we say, " The audience was large," we mean the audi- 
ence taken as a whole. If we say, " The audience were 
delighted," we mean the audience taken as individuals , 
the persons in the audience. 

When a collective noun denotes a body of individu- 
als taken as a whole, it has no gender. When it de- 
notes individuals taken separately, it is masculine if 
these individuals are males, feminine if they are females, 
and common if both. Thus : — 

No gender. — The audience was delighted. 

Masculine. — A committee of gentlemen are calling for subscriptions. 
Feminine. — A committee of ladies are calling for subscriptions. 
Common. — The audience were delighted. 

EXERCISE. 

Mention the nouns, their class, 'person, number, and gender 
when they have it. [Thus : — Mr Isaac Newton is a complex proper 
noun, in the third person, singular number, masculine gender. 
Philosophers is a common noun, in the third person, plural number, 
common gender. Age is a common noun, in the third person, sin- 
gular number.] 

times be determined? What words show it to be masculine? What, feminine? 
Illustrate this with the noun neighbor. 101. How may masculine nouns and some 
feminines be used ? What do they then represent ? Give examples. 102. Wfcat 
does a collective noun denote? How may these individuals be spoken of ? Give 
examples. What is the gender of a collective noun when the individuals it denotes 
are taken as a whole ? What, when they are taken separately ? Give examples. 



COEEELATIVE NOUNS. 



47 



Sir Isaac Newton was among the greatest philosophers of his 
age. — The philosopher Diogenes lived in a tut). — The lion is the 
king of beasts. — Pleasure, dressed in her gay robes, whispers 
temptingly to young men and maidens. — Every congregation likes 
its own minister best. — The sewing-society appointed a committee 
to collect contributions from the congregation.— At Aleppo is a 
cat- asylum, founded by a Turk, where sick cats are provided for. — 
Boys and girls are our future men and women. 



LESSON XXL 



MASCULINE AND FEMININE CORRELATIVES. 

103. Correlative Nouns. — Some masculine nouns 
have corresponding feminines : as, boy, girl / lion, 
lioness / man-singer, woman-singer. 

A masculine noun and its corresponding feminine are 
called Correlative Nouns. 

104. Classes. — Correlative nouns are divided into 
three classes : — 

I. Those in which the feminine is formed by append- 
ing the suffix ess , ine, ina, ix, or a to the masculine, 
with or without change ; as, 



Masculine. 


. Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Abbot, 


abbess. 


Count, 


countess. 


Actor, 


actress. 


Czar, 


czarina. 


Administrator, 


administratrix. 


Dauphin, 


dauphiness. 


Ambassador, 


ambassadress. 


Deacon, 


deaconess. 


Arbiter, 


arbitress. 


Director, 


- directress. 


Author, 


authoress. 


Doctor, 


doct-oress, ress. 


Baron, 


baroness. 


Don, 


donna. 


Benefactor, 


benefactress. 


Duke, 


duchess. 


Conductor, 


conductress. 


Editor, 


editress. 



103- What are Correlative Nouns? Give examples. 104. Into how many 
classes are correlative nouns divided ? What is the first class? Select from the 



48 



MASCULINE AND FEMININE COKEELATITES. 



Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Feminine, 


Emperor, 


empress. 


Palsgrave, 


palsgravine. 


Enchanter, 


enchantress. 


Patron, 


patroness. 


Executor, 


executrix. 


Peer, 


peeress. 


God, 


goddess. 


Poet, 


poetess. 


Governor, 


governess. 


Priest, 


priestess. 


Heir, 


heiress. 


Prince, 


princess. 


Hero, 


heroine. 


Prior, 


prioress. 


Host, 


hostess. 


Prophet, 


prophetess. 


Hunter, 


huntress. 


Proprietor, 


proprietress. 


Idolater, 


idolatress. 


Protector, 


protectress. 


Infante (title), 


infanta. 


Shepherd, 


shepherdess. 


Instructor, 


instructress. 


Songster, 


songstress. 


Jew, 


Jewess. 


Sorcerer, 


sorceress. 


Landgrave, 


landgravine. 


Sultan, 


sul'taness, sulta'na. 


Lion, 


lioness. 


Tailor, 


tailoress. 


Margrave, 


margravine. 


Testator, 


testatrix. 


Marquis, 


marchioness. 


Tiger, 


tigress. 


Mediator, 


mediatr-ix, ess. 


Traitor, 


traitress. 


Murderer, 


murderess. 


Viscount, 


viscountess. 


Negro, 


negress. 


Votary, 


votaress. 


Ogre, 


ogress. 


Waiter, 


waitress. 



Some proper nouns are made feminine by a change 
of termination, or the addition of a letter or letters ; as, 



Augustus, Augusta. 
George, Georgiana. 



Francis, 
Jesse. 



Frances. 
Jessie. 



Louis, 
Paul, 



Louis-e, a. 
Pauline. 



II. Those in which the genders are distinguished by 
the use of different words ; as, 



Mas. 


Fern. 


Mas. 


Fern. 


Mas. 


Fern. 


Bachelor, 


maid. 


Brother, 


sister. 


Father, 


mother. 


Beau, 


belle. 


Buck, 


doe. 


Friar, monk, 


nun. 


Boy, 


girl. 


Bull, 


cow. 


Gander, 


goose. 


Bridegroom, 


1 bride. 


Drake, 


duck. 


Gentleman, 


lady. 


Groom, 


Earl, 


countess. 


Hart, 


roe. 



list a feminine correlative formed with each of the suffixes mentioned. How are 
some proper nouns made feminine ? What is the feminine of Augustus 7 George 7 
Francis 7 Jesse 7 Louis 7 Paul 7 What is the second class of correlative nouns ? 
Give examples. What is the third class of correlative nouns ? Give examples. 



CORRELATIVE NOUNS. 



49 



Mas. 


Fern. 


Mas. 


Fern. 


Mas. 


Fern. 


Horse, 


mare. 


Master, 


mistress. 


Sire, 


dam. 


Husband, 


wife. 


Master, 


miss. 


Son, 


daughter. 


King, 


queen. 


Mr. 


Mrs. 


Stag, 


hind. 


Lad, 


lass. 


Nephew, 


niece. 


Steer, 


heifer. 


Lord, 


lady. 


Papa, 


mamma. 


Uncle, 


aunt. 


Male, 


female. 


Ram, buck 


ewe. 


Widower, 


widow. 


Man, 


woman. 


Sir, 


madam. 


Wizard, 


witch. 



III. Those in which words indicating the sex are 
prefixed to nouns of common gender ; as, 

Masculine. Feminine. Masculine. 



Man-singer, woman-singer. 

Man-servant, maid-servant. 
Male-descendant, female-descendant. 



Feminine. 
hen-sparrow, 
she-goat, 
doe-rabbit. 



Cock-sparrow, 

He-goat, 

Buck-rabbit, 

105. Compound nouns, in their gender and the for- 
mation of their feminines, follow their leading ele- 
ments ; as, 



Masculine. 
Brother-in-law, 
Step-father, 
Peacock, 



Feminine. 
sister-in-law. 
step-mother, 
peahen. 



Masculine. 
Landlord, 
Schoolmaster, 
Frenchman, 



Feminine* 
landlady, 
schoolmistress. 
Frenchwoman. 



EXERCISE. 

Give the feminine : — Czar ; director ; archduke ; earl ; em- 
peror ; enchanter ; hunter ; infante {prince royal of Spain) ; land- 
grave ; sultan; viscount; Julius; Henry; Joseph; boy; school- 
boy ; grandfather ; steer ; lord ; Englishman ; master ; master 
(a title) ; stag ; widower ; son-in-law ; male-descendants ; media- 
tor; tailor; hart; step-son. 

Give the masculine : — Co-heiress ; negress ; bride ; wife ; roe ; 
^randniece; granddaughter; mother-in-law; empress; school- 
mistress ; Irishwoman ; Moabitess ; witch ; songstress ; executrix ; 
female-servant ; serving-woman ; lass ; landlady ; Charlotte ; Har- 
riet; Cornelia. 

Mention six masculine nouns; six feminine nouns in ess ; six 
nouns of common gender ; six nouns that have no gender. 



105. What is the rule for the gender of compound nouns and the formation of 
their feminines ? Give examples. 
3 



50 GRAMMATICAL AND LOGICAL SUBJECTS. 

LESSON XXIL 

THE CASE OP NOUNS. 

We must now consider the relations in which nouns 
Btand to other words. 

106. In every sentence there is one leading word, 
denoting that abont which something is said. This is 
called the Grammatical Subject of the sentence. — " Morse 
invented the telegraph." Here Morse is the leading 
word, denoting that about which something is said, and 
it is therefore the grammatical subject. 

107. Words may be joined to the grammatical sub- 
ject, to limit or explain its meaning, or introduce some 
additional fact. These are called Modifiers. 

108. The grammatical subject and its modifiers form 
what is called the Logical Subject. — " Morse, a native 
of Massachusetts, invented the telegraph." Morse, a 
native of Massachusetts, is the logical subject. 

109. The words that remain in a sentence after the 
logical subject is removed, form what is called the 
Predicate. — Invented the telegraph is the predicate of 
both the sentences given above as examples. 

" The telegraph was invented by Morse." Here we express the same 
idea, but in a different form. Telegraph is now the grammatical subject ; 
the telegraph is the logical subject ; was invented by Morse is the predicate. 

110. The predicate of every sentence contains at 
least one word that affirms. This is called a Verb. 



106. What is meant by the Grammatical Subject of a sentence ? What is the 
grammatical subject of the sentence Morse invented the telegraph ? 107. What may- 
be joined to the grammatical subject? What are such words called ? 108. What 
ts the Logical Subject? Point out the grammatical and the logical subject in the 
sentence Morse, a native of Massachusetts, invented the telegraph. 109. What is the 
Predicate ? Select the predicate of the sentence just given. 110. What does the 
predicate of every sentence contain ? What is this word called ? What is the 



CASES OF NOUNS. 51 

That respecting which the verb affirms is called its 
Subject. The grammatical subject of a sentence is 
always the subject of the leading verb in the predicate. 

In the example just given, the grammatical subject of the sentence, 
telegraph, is the subject of the leading verb in the predicate, was invented. 

111. Observe the following sentences : — 

Morse invented the telegraph. 

The telegraph was invented by Morse. 

Morse's invention of the telegraph has made his name immortal. 
In these three sentences, the proper noun stands in different relations 
to the other words. In the first sentence, the noun Morse is the gram- 
matical subject ; in the second, it is the object of the preposition by ; in 
the third, its form is changed to Morse's, and it modifies the following noun 
invention, telling whose the invention was. Hence we distinguish three 
different relations that a noun may sustain in a sentence. 

112. Case is that property which distinguishes the re- 
lations of nouns and pronouns to other words in a sen- 
tence. 

There are three cases, known as the Nominative, the 
Possessive, and the Objective. 

113. The Nominative Case usually denotes the relation 
which a subject bears to its verb ; as, "David suc- 
ceeded Saul." 

The nominative also denotes the relation of a noun in the predicate 
after a verb, referring to the same person or thing as the subject of the 
verb; as, "Mohammed was an Arabian." "Charlemagne was crowned 
emperor." 

A noun used independently, in an exclamation, address, &c, is also in 
the nominative ; as " Heavens ! what a sight!" "Plato, thou reasonest 
well." " Teas and groceries for sale." " The sun having set, I returned." 

subject of a verb ? What will the grammatical subject of a sentence always be 
found to be ? 111. Give the three sentences to which attention is called. Show the 
different relations in which the proper noun stands in these sentences. 112. What 
is Case ? Name the cases. 113. What does the Nominative Case usually denote ? 
What other relation does the nominative denote ? In what case is a noun when 
used independently ? What is the case of sun, and why, in the sentence The sun 
having act, I returned ? If we say, As the sun had set, J returned, what case is sun, 



52 THE POSSESSIVE. — THE OBJECTIVE. 

In this last sentence, the action is assumed, in stead of being affirmed, and 
sun is in the nominative independent. If we say, " As the sun had set, I 
returned," the action is affirmed, and sun is in the nominative case because 
it is the subject of the verb had set. 

114. The Possessive Case denotes the relation of pos- 
session, origin, or fitness, which a modifying noun or 
pronoun bears to the noun that it modifies : as, David's 
father ; an eagle's flight ; children's shoes. 

115. The Objective Case usually denotes the object of 
a verb or preposition. 

The object of a verb stands in the predicate, and 
represents that on which the action expressed by the 
verb is exerted ; as, " Bees make wax." " David suc- 
ceeded Saul." 

116. The prepositions most frequently used are at, about, after, before, 
by, for, from, in, into, of, over, to, with, without A preposition always has 
an object, which generally follows it. Observe the objects in the following 
sentence, and select those which are the objects of prepositions : " Do thy 
duty with diligence and without fear, from love of right and in the hope of 
a reward hereafter." 

EXERCISE. 

Point out the grammatical subject of each sentence, its modifiers 
when it has any, the logical subject, and the predicate. Select the 
nouns ; state their class and case. — Balboa discovered the Pacific 
Ocean. — Living toads are sometimes found in the middle of huge 
rocks. — Victoria having succeeded to the throne, the government 
was administered with vigor and wisdom. — Deer's horns adorned 
my friend's apartment. — The Indians of the West hang bears' 
claws about their necks. — Kobert Fulton was the inventor of 
steamboats. — My friends — alas ! I have no friends. — O Health, 
inestimable are thy blessings. — The purest pearl may be found in 
the roughest oyster. 

and why ? 114. "What relation does the Possessive Case denote ? 115. What does 
the Objective Case usually denote ? Where does the object of a verb stand ? What 
does it represent ? 116. Name the prepositions most frequently used. What docs 
9 preposition always have f 



FOKMATION OF THE CASES OF NOUNS. 



53 



LESSON XXIII. 

THE DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 

117. Declension of ISTouns. — By the Declension of 
a noun is meant the process of carrying it through its 
several cases. The following will serve as examples : — 

Sing. Plu. Sing. Plu. Sing. Plu. 



Nom. 


Dog, 


dogs, 


sty, 


skies, 


Hero, 


heroes, 


Poss. 


dog's, 


dogs', 


sky's, 


skies', 


hero's, 


heroes', 


Obj. 


dog; 


dogs. 


sky; 


skies. 


hero; 


heroes. 


Nom. 


Ox, 


oxen, 


Woman, 


women, 


Julius, 


_ 


Poss. 


ox's, 


oxen's, 


woman's, 


women's, 


Julius's, 





Obj. 


ox; 


oxen. 


woman; 


women. 


Julius. 






118. Rules for the Formation of the Cases. — From 
the above examples may be derived the following rules, 
which apply to compound as well as primitive nouns :-— 

1. The form of the noun is the same in the objective 
case as in the nominative. 

2. The possessive singular is formed by appending 
an apostrophe and s Cs) to the nominative singular. 

3. The possessive plural is formed by appending 's 
to the nominative plural unless it already ends in s, in 
which case the apostrophe C) alone is added. 

119. When a word ends with the sound of s or 2, particularly if the 
next word commences with an s sound, some form the possessive with an 
apostrophe alone ; as, for conscience* sake ; Peleus' 1 son ; science 1 self. It 
is best, however, to avoid both this irregular form and the repetition of the 
s sound, by substituting o/with the objective or some equivalent construe* 
tion. Thus: — for the sake of conscience; the son of Peleus ; science 
herself 



117. What is meant by the Declension of a noun ? Decline dog ; sky ; hero ; ox ; 
woman ; Julius. 118. In what two cases is the form of the noun the same ? Is this 
true in both numbers ? How do we form the possessive singular ? The possessive 
plural ? 119. How do some form the possessive of words ending with the sound 
(rffiorz? What is said of this irregular form ? 



64: PRONOUNS AND THEIR CLASSES. 



EXERCISE. 

Decline green-house ; beau ; cherub ; child ; dormouse ; to- 
mato; Louis; nephew. 

Spell first the possessive singular, then the possessive plural, of 
axe; lock; huntsman; talisman; knight-templar; tigress; phe- 
nomenon; distaff; assembly; rabbi; valley; cuckoo; ashes. 

Parse the nouns. [Thus : — News is a common noun, in the third 
person, singular number, nominative case. Cornwallis's is a proper 
noun, in the third person, singular number, masculine gender, 
possessive case. Surrender is a common noun, in the third person, 
singular number, objective case.] The news of Oornwallis's sur- 
render was received by all true Americans with delight. — Umbrel- 
las were introduced into England from China, about a hundred 
years ago. — Slanderers are Satan's bellows, with which he blows 
up strife. — The ostrich is hunted for its feathers, which form 
beautiful ornaments for ladies' hats and head-dresses. — Obey thy 
father and mother ; honor the authors of thy being. — Dogs' ears are 
very different things from dog's-ears. 



LESSON XXIV. 

THE PRONOUN. — PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

120. The Pronoun. — The second part of speech is 
the Pronoun. 

121. "Sarah asked William to lend Sarah William's book." — This sen- 
tence is very awkward. To avoid repeating the nouns Sarah and William, 
we make use of substitutes called Pronouns : — " Sarah asked William to 
lend her his book." 

122. A Pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun or 
an expression equivalent to a noun. 

123. Classes. — There are four classes of pronouns; 
Personal, Relative, Interrogative, and Adjective. 

120. What is the second part of speech ? 121. Show how substitutes are used, 
to avoid repeating nouns. 122. What is a Pronoun ? 123. How many classes of 
pronouns are there ? Name them. What properties do all of these have ? What 



PERSONAL PEONOUNS. 



55 



All of these have person, number, and case. Such as represent things 
with life have gender also, though in many cases it is undetermined. In 
parsing, give the gender of the personals only. 

124. Personal Pronouns. — A Personal Pronoun is 
one that simply represents a noun and determines its 
person, without introducing any other idea respect- 
ing it. 

125. The personal pronouns are distinguished as 
Simple and Compound. 

126. Simple Personal Pronouns. — The simple per- 
sonal pronouns are, 

I, first person, masculine gender if a male is denoted, 
feminine if a female. 

Thou, second person, masculine gender if a male is de- 
noted, feminine if a female. 

He, third person, masculine gender. 

She, third person, feminine gender. 

It, third person, destitute of gender. 

127. The simple personals are thus declined : — 



Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 



Nom. 



First person. 
Singular. Plural. 
I, we, 

my, mine, our, ours, 
me : us. 



Obj. 



Sing. 
He, 

his, 

him; 



s 



Plu. 

they, 

their, 

theirs, 

them. 



Singular. 
Thou, 
thy, thine, 
thee ; 
Third person. 
Plu. 
they, 
their, 
theirs, 
them. 



Second person. 

Plural. 
you, ye, 
your, yours, 
you, ye. 



Sing. 

She, 
(her, 
( hers, 

her; 



Sing. 
It, 

its, 

it; 



Plu. 

they, 
( their, 
( theirs, 

them. 



128. Compound Personal Pronouns. — The compound 
personals are formed of the possessive or objective case 



pronouns "have gender also ? 124. What is a Personal Pronoun ? 125. How are the 
personal pronouns distinguished ? 126. Mention the simple personal pronouns, and 
the person and gender of each. 127. Decline the simple personals. 128. Of what 



56 THE COMPOUND PERSONALS. 

of the simple personals and the word self. They are 
not found in the possessive case, and are alike in the 
nominative and the objective. The compound per- 
sonals are, 

Myself, plu. ourselves, ourself, first person, masculine 
if a male is denoted, feminine if a female. 

Thyself, plu. yourselves, yourself, second person, mas- 
culine if a male is denoted, feminine if a female. 

Himself, plu. themselves, third person, mas. gender. 

Herself, plu. themselves, third person, fern, gender. 

Itself, plu. themselves, third person, no gender. 

129. Forms of the Possessive. — Most of the simple personal pronouns 
have two forms in the possessive case. The shorter form is used when 
the modified noun follows ; the longer, when it is understood. We say, 
" It is my hat ; " but, " This hat is mine." " Here are the hats ; mine 
[that is, my hat] is black." " It is thine [thy part] to commandj mine 
[my part] to obey." 

130. The possessive case of the simple personals, as well as of nouns, 
is frequently used with the preposition of, to denote possession simply. 
Thus : " This heart of mine will break." " Sing to the Lord, all ye saints 
of Mis." The meaning here is not this heart of my hearts, as some ex- 
plain such expressions, for I have but one heart ; nor all ye saints of His 
saints, for all denotes the whole and not a part. It is rather the noun 
possessing, owning, that is understood as the object of the preposition of — 
of my, His, possessing. 

131. Mine and thine were formerly preferred to my and thy, before 
words commencing with a vowel sound ; as, mine aim, thine honor. They 
are still sometimes so used in poetry; thus Byron, " thine azure brow." 

132. Plural for Singular. — The personal pronouns of the first and the 
second person are often used in the plural though but one person is denoted. 
A king would say, " We publish this our decree," in stead of "/publish 
this my decree." 

are the compound personals formed ? In what case are they not found? What 
cases are alike ? Mention the compound personals, and their person and gender. 
Decline each. 129. How many forms have most of the simple personals in the 
possessive case? What distinction is observed in their use? 130. What prepo- 
sition is frequently used with the possessive case of the simple personals ? To 
denote what ? Give examples. 131. Before what words were mine and thine for- 
merly preferred ? Where are they still sometimes so used ? 132. When is ourself 






REMARKS ON PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 57 

So an editor writes, " We think our self safe in predicting this," when 
he means, " /think myself safe.'' 1 The former is the more modest form of 
expression, and gives more weight to what he says. Ourself is a plural 
form of the first compound personal pronoun, used when one person is de- 
noted and only then. 

In common discourse, we constantly use the plural in addressing a single 
person. We do not say, "Hast thou hurt thyself?" but, "Have you hurt 
yourself? " Yourself is a plural form of the second compound personal 
pronoun, used when one person is denoted and only then. The pronoun 
of the second person is now used in the singular only in addressing the 
Almighty, in poetical style, and by the Friends, or Quakers, in common 
conversation. 

133. Ye. — Ye is now rarely used, except as a nomi- 
native in poetry or solemn style. 

134. It. — It is sometimes used indefinitely, without 
reference to any particular antecedent ; as, " It snows." 
" Is it well with, thee?" 

It formerly lacked the possessive case. Hence, in our version of the 
Bible, its nowhere occurs, but his or her is used in its place. We read, " If 
the salt have lost his savor," "the tree of life which yielded her fruit". 

It, though destitute of gender, is sometimes applied to living things ; 
as, " That child will hurt its voice." " The crocodile never gives up its prey.* 

EXERCISE. 

Mention first the simple and then the compound personal pronoun 
of the first person, singular number, objective case ; of the second, 
plural, possessive ; of the third, singular, masculine, nominative; 
of the second, singular, objective ; of the third, singular, feminine, 
objective ; of the first, plural, possessive; of the third, plural, nomi- 
native; of the first, singular, nominative; of the second, singular, 
nominative; of the third, singular, objective (no gender). 

Correct ours' ; theirs' ; it's ; your's ; his'n ; hern ; ourn ; yourn ; 
hisself; theirselves ; itsself; theirn. 

used? How do we constantly use the plural in common discourse? When is 
yourself used ? When alone is the pronoun of the second person now used in the 
singular? 133. What is said of ye? 134. How is it sometimes used? What is 
nsed instead of its in our version of the Bible ? Give examples. Why is not its 
found? To what is it sometimes applied? Give examples. 
3* 



58 RULES FOR NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

LESSON XXV. 

RULES FOR NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

135. — In parsing, rules must be given for the case of 
nouns and pronouns. The same rules, for the most part 9 
apply to both. We include both under the general, 
name of Substantive. 

136. Rule I.— A substantive that is the subject of a 
verb is in the nominative case. 

The subject generally precedes its verb ; as, " Thou lovest." In some 
sentences, however, the verb precedes its subject ; as, " Lovest thou me ? " 
" Here is a pin" " Then cometh the Judgment" 

137. Rule II. — A substantive used independently is 
in the nominative case. 

138. A noun or pronoun is used independently, 

1. When it represents that of which some action or state is assumed 
in stead of being affirmed ; as, " Napoleon having charged, the battle was 
decided." " She being well, all is well." 

2. When it represents an object addressed ; as, " Robert, do not go." 
" Friends, countrymen, and lovers, lend me your ears." 

3. In exclamations; as, " Heavens I what a sight I" "Ah! wretch- 
ed we I " 

4. When there is a sudden break in the construction, and a new subject 
or object is introduced ; as, " The bride — what can I say of her ? " 

139. Rule III. — A substantive that modifies a noun 
denoting a different person or thing, by implying pos- 
session, origin, or fitness, is in the possessive case : as, 
SauVs journey ; Charles's wain ; my hand ; his promises. 

140. Rule IY. — A substantive that is the object of 
a verb or preposition is in the objective case : as, Love 
God; helpw; the horrors of war ; for them. 

141. Rule V. — A modifying substantive, denoting 

135. For what must rules be given in parsing ? "What do we mean by a Sub» 
etantive ? 136. Recite Rule I. What is the position of the subject as regards its 
verb ? 137. Recite Rule II. 138. When is a noun or pronoun used independently ? 
139. Recite Rule III. 140. Recite Rule IV. 141. Recite Rule V. 142. Recite 



RULES FOR NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 59 

time, direction, extent, quantity, or value, often stands 
in the objective case without a preposition; as, "Last 
week, he went west" " It was an inch wide, weighed 
an ounce, and cost me a shilling" 

142. Rule VI. — One substantive joined to another 
denoting the same person or thing, is in the same case. 

" The house of Washington, the father of his country ; " father, joined 
to Washington and denoting the same person, is in the same case as 
Washiiigton, — the objective. " Thou hypocrite ; " hypocrite, joined to 
thou and denoting the same person, is in the same case, — the nominative. 
So, I myself; ye renegades ; Constantine the emperor. 

143. A substantive thus used is said to be in apposition with the one 
to which it is joined. It explains the latter, or adds to its meaning. 

Observe that there is no apposition when one substantive stands in the 
logical subject, and the other in the predicate; as, " Kome is a city." The 
next rule treats of this construction. 

144. Eule YII. — A verb that has no object takes 
the same case after as before it, when both words refer 
to the same person or thing. 

11 1 know that Charles is a scholar." Charles, the subject of the verb 
is, is in the nominative case ; therefore scholar, after the verb, is also in 
the nominative. — " I know Charles to be a scholar." Charles, being the 
object of the verb know, is in the objective ; therefore scholar, after the 
verb to be, is also in the objective. 

This rule applies, even when the natural order of the words is changed. 
— "Who are they?" "Are you a friend?" " Lucifer he was called." 
They, you, and he, are the subjects in the nominative case ; who, friend, 
and Lucifer, are in the nominative after the verbs. 

EXERCISE. 

Tell the case of each noun and personal pronoun, and under 
which of the above rules it falls : — Figures, the characters by which 
we denote numbers, were introduced into Europe in the eleventh 

Rule VI. Give examples. 143. What is said of a substantive thus joined to 
another? What does the substantive in apposition do? Under what circum- 
stances is there no apposition? 144. Recite Rule VII. Does this rule apply 
if the natural order of the words is changed ? Give examples. 



60 PAUSING FORMS. 

century. — u Know thyself," was a favorite maxim of Bion's. — 
Isocrates was ninety-four years old when he wrote his Panathe- 
naicus, a eulogy on Athens. — The sun having set, your brother 
betook himself home ; mine stayed all night. — A horse — a horse — 
my kingdom for a horse ! — Twenty-five miles from New York, the 
Hudson is a league in width. 



LESSON XXVI. 

PARSING FORMS FOR NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

145. Parse nouns and personal pronouns, and apply 
the rules given above, according to the following 
forms : — 

Thou hasty friend, a father's heart. 

A sentence : grammatical subject, thou ; logical subject, thou, 
friend; predicate, hast a father's heart. 

Thou is a simple personal pronoun, in the second person, singular 
number, masculine gender, nominative case, the subject of the verb hast ;— 
Rule, A substantive that is the subject of a verb is in the nominative case. 

Friend is a common noun, in the second person, singular number, 
masculine gender, nominative independent: — Rule, A substantive used 
independently is in the nominative case. 

Father's is a common noun, in the third person, singular number, 
masculine gender, possessive case, and modifies the noun heart : — Rule, 
A substantive that modifies a noun denoting a different person or thing, by 
implying possession, origin, or fitness, is in the possessive case. 

Heart is a common noun, in the third person, singular number, ob- 
jective case, the object of the verb hast: — Rule, A substantive that is the 
object of a verb or preposition is in the objective case. 

Note. — The word father's shows that in this sentence thou and friend 
denote males ; therefore we call them masculine. Had the sentence been, 
" Thou hast, friend, a merciful heart," there would have been no way of 
determining the sex, and we should have parsed thou and friend as of 
common gender. 

Fifty years ago* Fielding the novelist was a great 
favorite. 



PARSING FOKMS. 61 

A sentence : grammatical subject, Fielding ; logical subject, Fielding, 
the novelist ; predicate, was a great favorite fifty years ago. 

Years is a common noun, in the third person, plural number, object- 
ive case, denoting time : — Ride, A modifying substantive denoting time, 
direction, extent, quantity, or value, often stands in the objective case 
without a preposition. 

Fielding is a proper noun, in the third person, singular number 
masculine gender, nominative case, the subject of the verb was : — Rule^ 
A substantive that is the subject of a verb is in the nominative case. 

Novelist is a common noun, in the third person, singular number, 
masculine gender, nominative case, in apposition with Fielding: — Rule, 
One substantive joined to another denoting the same person or thing, is in 
the same case. 

Favorite is a common noun, in the third person, singular number, 
masculine gender, nominative case after the verb was : — Rule, A verb that 
has no object takes the same case after as before it, when both words refer 
to the same person or thing. 

These bodies of ours will decay. — Time itself shall 
be no more. 

Ours is a simple personal pronoun, in the first person, plural number, 
common gender, possessive case, and modifies the noun possessing under- 
stood : — Rule, A substantive that modifies a noun denoting a different per- 
son or thing, by implying possession, origin, or fitness, is in the possessive 
case. 

Itself is a compound personal pronoun, in the third person, singular 
number, nominative case, in apposition with time : — Rule, One substan- 
tive joined to another denoting the same person or thing, is in the same 
case. 

EXERCISE. 

Treat the sentences, and parse the nouns and personal pronouns, 
according to the above models : — France contains immense tracts 
of land in forests. — " Others * may submit to Fate," said Cassar ; 
" be it mine to conquer her." — The tree is known t by his fruit. — 
In the scenery of Switzerland, Nature has outdone herself. — Mary, 
that child of yours, has cried itself asleep. — Scipio having been 

* A sentence : grammatical subject, C&sar ; logical subject, Casar; predicate, 
said, " others may submit to Fate ; be it mine to conquer herP 

t A verb may consist of several words. Is known is the verb in this sentence ; 
has outdone, in the next. 



62 RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

sent into Africa, Hannibal had to follow him thither. — "What a 
spectacle presented itself to our eyes! — You yourself have said 
you were my friend. 



LESSON XXVII. 

SIMPLE RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

146. A Relative Pronoun is one used to connect parts 
of a sentence, without change of form for the different 
persons and numbers. 

The relatives are so called because they relate to 
some word or words in the same sentence, usually going 
before, and therefore known as the Antecedent. 

147. The relative pronouns are distinguished as 
Simple and Compound. 

148. Simple Relatives. — The Simple Relative Pro- 
nouns are who, which, that, as, and vihat. 

149. Who is applied to persons, and animals and 
things personified ; as, " Mechanics, who work hard, 
enjoy a day of rest." " A butterfly, who was flitting 
past, took up the conversation." " Hope, who whispers 
fine promises, often deceives us." 

Observe in these examples, as well as those given below, that the rela- 
tive connects parts of a sentence. In the first example, it connects who 
work hard with mechanics enjoy a day of rest. What does it connect in 
the second example ? What, in the third ? 

150. Which is applied to animals and things ; as, 
" The alligator, which resembles the crocodile, is some- 
times eighteen feet long." " Reason, which is the 
greatest of divine gifts, belongs to man alone." 

146. What is a Relative Pronoun ? Why are the Relatives so called ? 147. Ho-w 
are the relative pronouns divided ? 148. Mention the simple relatives. 149. To 
what is who applied? What is to be observed in the examples of relatives? 
150. To what is which applied ? To what was which formerly applied ? Where dc 



THE SIMPLE RELATIVES. 63 

W7dck was formerly applied to persons, as well as who. It is fre- 
quently so used in the Bible ; as, " Our Father, which art in Heaven." This 
usage is no longer admissible. 

151. That is applied to persons, animals, and things, 
end implies a closer connection with the antecedent 
than who or which; as, "Mechanics that work hard, 
enjoy a day of rest." " A butterfly that was flitting 
past, took up the conversation." " Every day that 
passes, has its lessons." 

That is not always a relative. When it is, who, which, or whom, used 
in its place, will make sense. Thus, in the examples just given, Mechanics 
who work hard, A butterfly who was flitting past, Every day which passes. 

152. As is applied to persons, animals, and things, 
after such, same, as many, so many, as much, and so 
much / as, " Such as [equivalent to those who\ are 
virtuous, are happy." " You wear the same kind of 
hat as [equivalent to thai] I wear." " I have as many 
horses as you." " So many of us as were baptized." 
" He gave as much as he could afford." 

As is a relative, only when used in such expressions as the above. 

153. What is applied to things, and is equivalent to 
antecedent and relative ; as, " I have what [that which] 
I desired." 

154. Declension. — The plural of the simple relatives 
is like the singular. They are thus declined : — 

S. &P. S.& P. S. & P. S. & P. S.& P. 

Nom. Who, Which, That, As, What, 

Poss. whose, whose, 

Obj. whom. which. that. as. what. 



We frequently find it so used ? 151. To what is that applied ? What degree of 
connection does it indicate ? When is that a relative ? 152. To what is as applied? 
After what expressions is it used? 153. To what is what applied ? To what is it 
equivalent ? 154. Decline the simple relatives. Which of them do not change ? 



64 THE ANTECEDENT, 

155. Position of the Antecedent — The antecedent 
generally precedes the relative ; as, " He who slanders 
me is my foe." Sometimes the order is changed, and 
the relative stands first ; as, " Who slanders me, he is 
my foe." 

156. The antecedent is sometimes understood. " Who 
takes my life, but rids me of a load ; " here he is under- 
stood, as the antecedent of who. 

EXERCISE. 

Correct the relatives, and give reasons for the changes made. Men* 
tion the antecedent of each relative. Parse the nouns and the per- 
sonal pronouns : — The dog who barks seldom bites. — People what 
live in glass houses should not throw stones. — The men and horses 
whom I saw, were a mile off. — The men and women which I saw 
were foreigners. — Time, which has mowed down myriads with 
his scythe, will lay me low also. — Such parents which have their 
children's good at heart, will require them to obey. — After his 
defeat, Napoleon was never the same which he was before. — They 
have that they desired. 



LESSON XXVIII. 

COMPOUND RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

157. The Compound Relative pronouns are, 
Whoever, whosoever \ whoso, applied- only to persons. 
Whichever, whichsoever, applied to persons, animals, 

and things. 
Whatever, whatsoever, whatso, applied only to things, 

Wlioso and whatso are now rarely used. 

155. What is the position of the antecedent ? 156. What do we sometimes find 
With respect to the antecedent ? 

157. Mention the compound relatives, and tell to what each is applied. Which 



THE COMPOUND RELATIVES. 65 

158. Force. — A compound relative is generally 
equivalent to an antecedent and a simple relative. 

Examples. — " Whoever [that is, any one that] has visited France, knows 
this." " Take whichever [either that] you choose." " Whatever [every 
thing that] is, is right." 

159. Since an antecedent is implied in the compound relatives, no an- 
tecedent should be used before them. For emphasis, however, one ie 
sometimes introduced after them. We read in the Bible, " Whatsoever 
he saith unto you, do U" Were the order changed, it would have to be 
omitted : — "Do whatsoever he saith unto you." 

160. Declension. — Whoever and whosoever are thus 
declined : — 

Sing, and Plural. Sing, and Plural. 
Norn. Whoever, Whosoever, 

Poss. whosever, whosesoever, 

Obj. whomever. whomsoever. 

Whoso occurs only in the nominative. 
The other compound relatives do not change, and are 
wanting in the possessive case. 

161. Parsing of Relatives. — In parsing whoj which, 
that, or as, two rules must be given : one for its person 
and number, which are always the same as its antece- 
dent's ; and another for its case, which is independent 
of its antecedent's. 

162. The compound relatives are sometimes so used 
as not to imply an antecedent ; as, " Whatever I do, 1 
can not please you." Here whatever is not equivalent 
to any thing that. In such cases they are parsed like the 
personals, and one rule suffices. 

are now rarely used ? 158. To what is a compound relative generally equivalents 
Illustrate this. 159. Under what circumstances may an antecedent be used with 
a compound relative \ Give an example from the Bible. 160. Decline whoever. 
Decline whosoever, In what case alone is whoso found ? What is said of the other 
compound relatives ? 161. What directions are given for parsing who, which, that, 
and as 7 162. How are the compound relatives sometimes used ? In such cases, 
how are they parsed ? What is generally implied in the compound relatives and 



66 PAUSING OF RELATIVES. 

Generally, however, the compound relatives and the 
simple relative what imply- an antecedent in themselves. 
They then represent two cases, one as antecedent and 
the other as relative ; and two rules are necessary, unless 
both cases fall under the same rule. 

Thus: — " I will buy what is needed." As antecedent, what is in the 
objective case, the object of the verb will buy ; as relative, it is in the nom- 
inative, the subject of the verb is needed. Two rules are therefore necessary. 
41 They know not what they do." As antecedent, what is in the objective, 
the object of the verb know; as relative, it is objective also, the object of 
the verb do. Here one rule will suffice. 

163. Whoever and whosoever, like the other compound relatives, are 
generally equivalent to antecedent and relative, and therefore represent 
two cases. Their form, however, changes in the different cases ; and, as 
they can appear in but one form, they take that which corresponds with 
their case as relatives. Thus: — "A reward will be given to whoever [any 
one who] shall arrest the criminal." As antecedent, whoever is in the objective 
case, the object of the preposition to ; as relative, it is in the nominative, 
the subject of the verb shall arrest. Its case as relative determines its 
form, and it is therefore put in the nominative. 

164:. Rule VIII. — A relative agrees with its antece- 
dent in person and number. 

165. Models. — Pope, who translated Homer, was one 
of the greatest geniuses that adorned Queen Anne's reign. 

Who is a simple relative pronoun, and has Pope for its antecedent, with 
which it agrees in the third person, singular number — Rule, A relative 
agrees with its antecedent in person and number ; in the nominative case, 
the subject of the verb translated — Rule, A substantive that is the subject 
of a verb is in the nominative case. 

That is a simple relative pronoun, and has geniuses for its antecedent, 
with which it agrees in the third person, plural number — Rule, A relative 
agrees, &c. ; in the nominative case, the subject of the verb adorned — Rule^ 
A substantive that is the subject of a verb is in the nominative case. 

what 7 How many rules are then necessary? Illustrate this. 163. To what are 

whoever and whosoever generally equivalent? As they have different forms in 

the different cases, which form do they take ? Illustrate this. 164. Recite Rule 
VIII. 165. Learn the parsing forms. 



PARSING OF RELATIVES. 67 

As many as give ear to what I say, shall not repent 
. thereof. 

As (after many) is a simple relative pronoun, and has persons under' 
stood for its antecedent, with which it agrees in the third person, plural 
number — Rule, A relative agrees, &c. ; in the nominative case, the subject 
of the verb give — Rule, A substantive that is the subject, &c. 

What is a simple relative pronoun, equivalent to antecedent and rela- 
tive ; in the third person, singular number ; as antecedent, in the objective 
case, the object of the preposition to ; as relative, in the objective case, the 
object of the verb say : — Rule, A substantive that is the object of a verb 
or preposition is in the objective case. 

He bids whoever is athirst come. 

Whoever is a compound relative pronoun, equivalent to antecedent and 
relative, in the third person, singular number; as antecedent, in the 
objective case, the object of the verb bids — Rule, A substantive that is the 
object of a verb or preposition is in the objective case ; as relative, in the 
nominative case (and therefore it has the nominative form), the subject of 
the verb is — Rule, A substantive that is the subject of a verb is in the 
nominative case. 

Whatsoever he saith unto you, do it. 

Whatsoever is a compound relative pronoun, equivalent to antecedent 
and relative, in the third person, singular number ; as antecedent, in the 
nominative independent — Rule, A substantive used independently is in the 
nominative case ; as relative, in the objective case, the object of the verb 
saith — Rule, A substantive that is the object of a verb, &c. 

Whosever lot it is to/all, wtfll murmur not. 

Whosever is a compound relative, in the third person, singular number, 
possessive case, and modifies the noun lot : — Rule, A substantive that 
modifies a noun denoting a different person or thing, by implying possession, 
origin, or fitness, is in the possessive case. 

EXER CISE. 

Parse the nouns, and the personal and relative pronouns:—* 
Queen Anne, whose husband was a Dane, was the last of the 
Stuarts that reigned in England. — "Whoever wins, may laugh. — 
Few that live in palaces know what poor men suffer. — You your- 
self, who blame me so much, have the same faults. — I who speak, 



68 INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

and thou who nearest, will soon be in the grave. — Who calls me 
happy, little does he know. — Whichever I select, I fear she will 
blame me. 



LESSON XXIX. 

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

166. An Interrogative Pronoun is one used for asking 
a question, in answering a question indefinitely, and in 
similar indefinite expressions ; as, who, which, and what 
in the following sentences : — 

Questions. — TOodidit? Which was it? What is truth? 
Indefinite Answers. — I know not who did it, which it was, what truth is. 
Indef. Expressions. — Find out who did it, which it was, what truth is. 

167. The interrogative pronouns are, 

Who, applied only to persons. " Who is there ? " 
Which, applied to persons, animals, and things. 

" Which oijou'i" "WcA of the cats?" "Which 

of the tables?" 
What, applied only to things. " What do I see ?" 

168. Whether was formerly applied to persons and things as an interrog- 
ative pronoun ; as " Whether is greater, the gold or the temple that sancti> 
fieth the gold ? " It is no longer used in this sense. 

169. The interrogatives are declined like the corre- 
sponding relatives, § 154. 

170. The interrogatives and relatives must not be confounded. Observe, 
1. That the introduction of an antecedent converts an interrogative into a 
relative. 2. That what is not an interrogative, but a relative, when equiv* 
alent to that which. Thus : — 

Interrogatives. — Who said so ? Do you know who said so ? I can not 
remember who said so. I know what [not equivalent to that which] it is. 

166. What is an Interrogative Pronoun ? Give examples. 167. Name the in- 
terrogatives, and tell to what each is applied. 168. What other word was formerly 
used as an interrogative pronoun ? 169. Decline the interrogatives. 170. From 
What mufit the interrogatives be distinguished ? What effect has the introduction 



PARSING OF INTEKROGATIYES. 69 

Relatives. — The person who said so is here. Do you know the man who 
said so ? I can not respect those who said so. I said what [that which] 
. you told me. 

171. Parsing. — The interrogative pronouns are al- 
ways in the third person. In parsing, mention their 
person, number, case, and the rale that applies. 

What is that f — Whose boohs are those ? Yours ? 

What is an interrogative pronoun, in the third person, singular num- 
ber, nominative case after the verb is : — Rule, A verb that has no object 
takes the same case after as before it, when both words refer to the same 
person or thing. 

Whose is an interrogative pronoun, in the third person, singular num- 
ber, possessive case, and modifies the noun books : — Rule, A substantive 
that modifies a noun denoting a different person or thing, by implying pos- 
session, origin, or fitness, is in the possessive case. 

Yours is a personal pronoun, in the second person, singular number, 
common gender, possessive case, and modifies books understood (yours 
being here equivalent to are they your books ?) : — Rule, A substantive 
that modifies a noun denoting a different person or thing, &c. 

172. To parse this last word, we have to supply what is understood. 
So, when a question is answered with a single word. " Whom did Madison 
succeed ? Jefferson." That is, he succeeded Jefferson ; Jefferson is in the 
objective case, the object of the verb succeeded understood. — " Who suc- 
ceeded Jefferson? Madison." That is, Madison succeeded him ; Madison 
is in the nominative case, the subject of the verb succeeded understood. — 
In such constructions, when you are in doubt as to the case, supply the 
words understood. 

EXEaGISEi 

Parse the nouns., and the personal, relative, and interrogative 
pronouns: — Whom did Napoleon marry? Josephine and Maria 
Louisa. — Which is the house ? I forget which it is. — What is a 
noun? A word used as a name. — Who were the inventors ol 
printing ? Gutenberg, Schoeffer, and Faust. — To whom did Colum- 
bus first apply for aid ? To the Spanish ? No ; the Genoese. — I 

of an antecedent ? When is what not an interrogative ? Give examples. 171. In 
what person are the interrogative pronouns ? In parsing them, what must be men- 
tioned ? Learn the parsing forms. 172. What must be done in parsing, when a 
question is asked or answered with a single word ? Give examples. 



70 ADJECTIVE PKONOUNS. 

know what you saw. — Whose clothes are these? James's and 
mine. 

Make two sentences with simple personal pronouns for subjects ; 
two with interrogatives for subjects; two containing simple rela- 
tives in the possessive case ; two containing compound relatives in 
the objective ; two containing compound personals in the objective. 



LESSON XXX. 

ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 

173. Adjective Pronouns. — All pronouns not in- 
cluded in the classes already named are called Adjective 
Pronouns. They are divided into the following classes : — 

1. Demonstratives, which point out with precision the 
objects to which they refer : — This, that, former, latter, 
loth, same. 

2. Distributives, which represent objects as taken 
separately : — Each, every, either, neither. 

3. Indefinites, which refer to objects generally, with- 
out specifying any in particular: — One, none, other, 
another, some, all, any, such. 

174. Caution. — It is only when used in stead of 
nouns or equivalent expressions that these words are 
adjective pronouns. When used with nouns, they are 
adjectives. 

" David and Jonathan loved each other." Each and other are here 
used in stead of nouns, and are adjective pronouns. — " Each day brings 
other duties." Each and other are here used with nouns, and are therefore 
adjectives. 

175. Declension. — This, that, one, and other, are 
thus declined : — 

173. What class of pronouns remains to be treated ? How are adjective pro- 
nouns subdivided ? Define Demonstratives ; Distributives ; Indefinites. 174. When 
are these words adjective pronouns ? When used with nouns, what part of speech 
are they ? Illustrate this. 175. Decline this ; that ; one ; other ; another. What ie 



ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 71 



8. 


P. 


A 


P. 


A 


P. 


A 


P. 


y. This, 


these, 


That, 


those, 


One, 


ones, 


Other, 


others, 


p. — 











one's, 


ones', 


other's, 


others', 


O. this; 


these. 


that; 


those. 


one ; 


ones. 


other ; 


others. 



Another is declined in the singular like other, but has no plural. The 
rest of the adjective pronouns are indeclinable (that is, do not change), 
and are never used in the possessive. 

176. Numher. — Each, every, either, and neither, are 
always singular. Both is always plural. Former, 
latter, same, none, some, all, any, and such, are used in 
both numbers without change of form. Their number 
is determined by that of the word for which they stand. 

177. Remarks. — That and this, former and latter, are frequently used 
to distinguish two objects mentioned immediately before. Thus used, that 
ind former refer to the more remote, or the first-mentioned ; this and 
latter, to the nearer, or last-mentioned. Thus : — " Mercantile and profes- 
sional life both have their advantages : this [or the latter, that is, profes* 
sional life] opens the way to fame ; that [or the former, that is, mercantile 
life] leads to an honorable competence." 

178. Some assign a possessive case to former and latter; "The 
formers victory counterbalanced the latter's defeat." These possessives 
are not authorized. Correct thus: — " The victory of the former counter- 
balanced the defeat of the latter" 

179. Parsing.— They killed one another. — Parsi- 
mony and prodigality should loth he avoided. 

One is an adjective pronoun, in the third person, singular number, nomi« 
native case, in apposition with they: — Rule, One substantive joined to 
another denoting the same person or thing, is in the same case. 

Another is an adjective pronoun, in the third person, singular number, 
objective case, the object of the verb killed: — Rule, The object of a verb 
or preposition is in the objective case. 

Both is an adjective pronoun, in the third person, plural number, 
nominative case, in apposition with parsimony and prodigality : — Rule, 

baid of the rest of the adjective pronouns ? 176. Which of the adjective pronouns 
are always singular ? Which is always plural ? Which are used in hoth numbers 
without change of form ? How is their number determined ? 177. For what are 
that and this, former and latter, often used ? When so used, to what do that and 
former refer ? To what do this and latter refer ? 178. What case of former and 
latter ii condemned as unauthorized ? 179. Learn the parsing forms. 



72 THE ARTICLE. 

One substantive joined to another denoting the same person or thing, is in 
the same case. 

EXERCISE. 

Parse the nouns and pronouns : — Such is the case. — They will 
perish, each and every of them. — Here are three shoes, a new one 
and two old ones. — Do either you choose. I will do neither. — 
Give some to me. I have not any. I have none to spare. — She 
can not mean that. — These are beautiful, those amiable ; the 
former we admire, the latter we love. — Listen to others' woes. — 
He executed a deed to Eichard Eoe, and the same was duly 
recorded. 

Supply pronouns of the classes indicated : — I {compound per- 
sonal) also am a man. — Love all men, do harm to (adjective pro- 
noun). — (Interrogative) does not love (personal) country? — (Com- 
pound relative) I may do, I will not desert (personal) friends. — 
(Adjective pronoun) who grieve, shall find comfort for {personal) 
sorrows. — Such (relative) do good, shall have their reward. 



LESSON XXXI. 

THE ARTICLE. 

180. The Article. — The third part of speech, is the 
Article. 

The apple ; an apple. The book ; a book. 
When we say the apple, the book, we refer to some particular apple 
and book. When we say an apple, a book, we mean one of each, but no 
particular one. This difference of meaning results from the use of the 
words the and an or a before the nouns. These two words (for an and o 
are but different forms of the same word) are called Articles. 

181. The Articles are the words the and an or a, used 
before other words to limit their meaning. 

182. The articles are generally used before nouns with or without 

180. What is the third part of speech ? What do we mean when we say the 
apple, the book 7 When we say an apple, a book 7 From what does this difference 
of meaning result ? 181. What are the Articles ? 182. Before what are the arti- 



CLASSIFICATION OF ARTICLES. 73 

a word or words between ; as, the rose, a rose, the wild rose, an insignifi- 
cant rose, a red and white rose. In all these expressions, the article 
limits the meaning of the noun rose, and is said to relate to it. 

183. An article may also relate to, 

A pronoun ; as, the former, the latter, the one, the other. 

An adjective ; as, " The softer it is, the better." 

An adverb ; as, u The more we study, the better we like to study? 

184. Cautions. — Do not confound the article an with the conjunction 
jtn, used by old writers for if; as, "An it be a long part, I can't re- 
jnember it." 

Do not confound the article a with the preposition a, used in such ex- 
pressions as to go a hunting, to burst out a laughing, &c. 

185. Classification and Use. — The is called the Defi- 
nite Article. It is used with nouns in both numbers, 
and generally denotes a particular object or objects. 

An, or a, is called the Indefinite Article. It is used with 
nouns in the singular only, and denotes one object but 
no particular one. 

186. Nouns taken in their widest sense are often used without either 
article; as, "Day is the time for work; night, for repose." 

187. The definite article used with the names of animals, plants, trees, 
&c, in the singular, may denote either one of the kind or the whole group. 
I may say, " The dahlia you gave me is dead ;" — meaning a particular 
plant : or, " The dahlia is a native of Mexico ; " — meaning the whole group 
of plants so called. 

188. Use of an and a. — The indefinite article has two 
forms, an and a. 

189. An is used before words commencing with a 
vowel sound ; as, an ant, an earl, an idol, an oak, an 
umbrella, an heir, an honor. 

ales generally nsed ? Give examples. 183. To what besides a noun may an article 
relate ? 184. With what must the article an not be confounded ? With what must 
the article a not be confounded ? 185. What is the called ? With what is it used ? 
What does it generally denote ? What is an or a called ? With what is it used ? 
What does it denote? 186. When are nouns used without either article? 

187. What may the, used before the names of animals, <fcc, in the singular, denote ? 

188. Mention the forms of the indefinite article. 189. WTiere must an be used ? 
Show the difference between commencing with a vowel and commencing ^fith a 

4 



74 PARSING OF ARTICLES. 

Observe that a word may commence with a consonant and yet with a 
vowel sound ; as in the last two examples, in which h is silent. 

190. A is used before words commencing with a con- 
sonant sound ; as, a bird, a cat, a sea, a hen, a wonder, 
many a one, a yew, a ewe, a unit, a eulogy, a humor. 

Wand y, beginning words, are consonants. A must therefore be used 
before words commencing with these letters or their sound, as in the last 
seven examples. 

Words beginning with h sounded, take a. Those beginning with h 
silent, may commence with a vowel sound and take an, as an herb ; or with 
a consonant sound and take a, as a humor. Either an or a may be used 
before words commencing with h that are pot accented on the first syllable ; 
as, an histo'rian or a histo'rian. 

191. The articles have neither person, number, gen- 
der, nor case. 

192. Rule IX. — An article relates to the word whose 
meaning it limits. 

193. Parsing. — The son of a king. 

The is the definite article, and relates to son : — Rule, An article relates 
to the word whose meaning it limits. 

A is the indefinite article, and relates to king : — Rule, An article, &c. 

EXEKCISE. 

Supply the proper indefinite article, according to §§ 189, 190. 
Then parse the nouns, pronouns, and articles : — "We waited — hour 
for the wagon, which at last came, bringing — ham, — basket of 
eggs, — half-barrel of cider, and — - well-cooked joint of beef. — 
ewe, — ox, — year-old colt, and — young calf, were feeding in — 
worn-out field. — humorous account of — European tour made 
by — Yankee in — one-horse wagon, has had — wide circulation. 
— heiress with such — immense fortune is not met with every 
day. — honorable man and — honest man are two different 
things. 



vowel sound. 190. Where is a used ? Which form must be used before words 
beginning with w and y 7 Which form, before words beginning with h ? Which 
form, before words beginning with h, not accented on the first syllable ? 191. What 
properties do not belong to the articles ? 192. Recite Rule IX. 193. Learn the 
parsing form. 



ADJECTIVES AND THEIR CLASSES. 75 

LESSON XXXII. 

ADJECTIVES AND THEIR CLASSES. 

194. The Adjective. — The fourth part of speech is 
the Adjective. 

" Those four noisy English boys are here." 
The words those, four, noisy, and English, are here all joined to the 
noun boys. Those and English tell which boys are meant ; four tells how 
many boys ; noisy tells what kind of boys. Words like these, joined to a 
noun or pronoun, to qualify or limit its meaning, are called Adjectives. 

195. An Adjective is a word used to qualify or limit 
the meaning of a substantive ; as, sweet roses, happy 
thou. 

196. The substantive to which an adjective relates, is often understood; 
as when we speak of the good, the living, meaning good men, living per- 
sons.' So, " There are worse things than [for a man] to be poor" 

197. A word generally used as a noun becomes an adjective when it is 
joined to a substantive to qualify or limit its meaning ; as, an iron mask, 
a rose color, a night attack, London porter. 

198. Classes. — Adjectives may be divided into four 
classes ; Proper, Numeral, Pronominal, and Common. 

199. A Proper Adjective is one derived from a proper 
noun, or identical with a proper noun in form ; as, a 
Roman nose, Ciceronian eloquence, Byron collars, a 
Philadelphia lawyer. 

200. Caution. — Proper Adjectives must be distinguished from proper 
nouns having the same form. Observe the difference in the following ex- 
amples : — 

Proper Adjectives. — Irish melodies ; Welsh flannel ; Russian isinglass, 

t 

194. What is the fourth part of speech ? In the sentence Those four noisy 
English boys are here, what words are joined to the noun boys 7 What do they re- 
spectively tell ? What are words like these, joined to a noun or pronoun, called ? 
195. What is an Adjective ? 196. Give examples to show that an adjective may 
relate to a substantive understood. 197. When does a word generally used as a 
noun become an adjective ? 198. Into how many classes may adjectives be divided * 
Name them. 199. What is a Proper Adjective ? 200. From what must proper 



76 NUMERALS. PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 

Proper Nouns. — Can you speak Irish ? The Welsh are a thrifty 
people. A Russian ; the Russians ; a Russian's revenge. — A plural or 
possessive form, as in the last two examples, indicates a noun. 

201. A Numeral Adjective is one that denotes a defi- 
nite number ; as, three, third, three-fold. 

202. The Numeral Adjectives are distinguished as 
Cardinals, Ordinals, and Multiplicatives. 

The Cardinals answer the question how many ; as, 
one, two, three, four, thirteen, twenty-one, two hundred. 

The Ordinals answer the question which in order / 
as, first, second, third, fourth, thirteenth, twenty-first, 
two-hundredth. 

The Multiplicatives answer the question how many 
fold / as, single, double or two-fold, triple or three-fold, 
quadruple ox four fold, twenty-fold, hundredfold. 

203. Caution. — The numerals must be distinguished from nouns having 
the same form, as used in the following sentences : — " Here is a ten (mean- 
ing a ten-dollar billy " They came by fifties and hundreds ." "Divide 
fifty -three by one fourth" " It produced a hundredfold" 

204. The Pronominal Adjectives are words identical in 
form with certain pronouns, but used with nouns and 
not in stead of them. 

The pronominal adjectives are which, what, which- 
ever, whichsoever, whatever, whatsoever, this, that, these, 
those, former, latter, both, same, each, every, either, 
neither, one, none, other, another, some, all, any, such. 

The adjective pronouns all become pronominal adjectives, when used 
with their nouns. Thus : — This man, that field, both eyes, the same party, 
other countries, such persons. Silver and gold have I none. Which thing 
is an allegory. Wliat thoughts are these ? 

adjectives he distinguished ? Give examples showing the difference. What does 
a plural or possessive form indicate? 201. What is a Numeral Adjective? 
202. What three classes are embraced under Numerals ? What question do the 
Cardinals answer ? The Ordinals ? The Multiplicatives ? 203. From what must 
the numerals be distinguished ? 204. What are the Pronominal Adjectives ? Name 
tne pronominals. Under what circumstances do all the adjective pronouns become 



COMMON ADJECTIVES. 77 

205. The Common Adjectives are all those not em- 
braced in the above classes. A common adjective may 
express, 

1. Quality; as, wicked, handsome, idle, red-hot, ever-to-be-rememberea\ 

2. Quantity ; as, much labor, money enough, a whole month. 

3. Material ; as, a gold crown, a golden crown, wooden buckets. 

4. Time ; as, daily, weekly, annual, subsequent, everlasting. 

5. Situation ; as, the above rule, the off horse, the under side. 

6. Direction; as, a loest wind, the homeward journey. 

*7. An indefinite number ; as, several, sundry, few, many, numerous. 
8. Negation; as, " There is no music in his soul." 

EXERCISE. 

Supply adjectives of the classes indicated : — Alexander the Great 
was a {common) general ; he invaded {common) lands, subdued 
{common) nations, took {common) cities, was successful in {pro- 
nominal) battle, and added much to {proper) glory. — {Pronominal) 
boys are so {common) that they can not tell how much {cardinal) 
times eleven is. — The United States has had two {common) and 
{common) wars with the {proper) nation ; during the {ordinal), 
Madison was president. — Darkness and tempest make a {multipli- 
cative) night. — {Proper) politeness is famous the world over. 



LESSON XXXIII. 

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

u The country is pleasant in spring, pleasanter in summer, but pleasantest 
in autumn." 
206. Here we are told that the quality of pleasantness belongs to the 
country in different degrees at different times. These different degrees 
are implied in the words 'pleasant, pleasanter, pleasantest. By varying 
the form of an adjective, therefore, we may make it express in different 
degrees the quality which it denotes. 

pronominal adjectives ? 205. What are the Common Adjectives ? State what <a 
common adjective may express, and give examples in each case. 

206. Repeat the sentence given at the commencement of this lesson. What 
are we here told ? In what words are these different degrees implied ? By varying 



78 COMPARISON. 

207. Comparison. — Adjectives are not declined. 
But some, principally the common adjectives, are com- 
pared, — that is, varied in form, to express different 
degrees of the quality they denote : as, few, fewer> 
fewest j witty, wittier, wittiest. 

208. Degrees of Comparison. — There are three de^ 
grees expressed by different forms of the adjective. 
They are called Degrees of Comparison, and are dis- 
tinguished as the Positive, the Comparative, and the 
Superlative. 

The Positive is the degree expressed by an adjective 
in its primitive form ; as, " He is wise and happy" 

The Comparative is a higher degree than some other 
or others with which it is compared ; as, " He is wiser 
and happier than I or thou." " He is wiser and hap- 
pier than he was." " He is wiser than he is happy." 

The Superlative is the highest degree of all that are 
compared ; as, " He is the wisest and happiest of us all." 

209. Formation of the Degrees. — The Comparative 
Degree is formed by annexing er, and the Superlative 
by annexing est, to the Positive ; as, 

Pos. Pleasant, Rude, Holy, Wet, 

Comp. pleasanter, rud-er, hoh'er, wetter, 

Sup. pleasantest. rud-est. hoKest. wettest. 

In annexing er and est, omit final e y change final y to i, or double 

the final consonant, if it is required by the rules of spelling. See the last 

three examples. 

210. Many adjectives of one syllable are compared, 

the form of an adjective, then, what may we make it express ? 207. What do we 
mean when we say that adjectives are compared 7 208. How many degrees are 
expressed by different forms of the adjective ? What are they called ? How are 
they distinguished ? What is the Positive ? What is the Comparative ? What is 
the Superlative? 209. How are the comparative and the superlative degree 
formed? Give examples. In some cases, what changes have to be made? 
210. What adjectives are compared ? What adjectives are not compared ? 



COMPARISON. 79 

and some of two syllables ; but none of more than two. 
We use quicker, quickest / prettier, prettiest : but not 
peacefuler, peacefulest ; gloriouser, gloriousest. 

211. Some adjectives have a meaning that does not 
admit of different degrees ; hence they can not be com* 
pared. This is the case with proper and numeral adjec- 
tives, with most of the pronominals, and with such 
common adjectives as chief, countless, infinite, golden, 
enough, daily, no, &c. 

212. In stead of annexing er and est to the primitive form of the adjec- 
tive, we may express the same ideas by prefixing to it the adverbs more 
and most; as, quick, more quick, most quick. These forms are more 
common than those in er and est, when the adjective consists of two syl- 
lables, and are altogether used when it has more than two. In the case of 
monosyllables, however, the forms in er and est are preferred. Thus, 
more pleasant, most pleasant, are more frequently used than pleasanter, 
pleasantest ; but shorter, shortest, are preferred to more short, most short. 

213. Other adverbs besides more and most may be joined to adjectives, 
to express different degrees; such as, less and least, very, exceedingly \ 
surpassingly, &c. An adjective, however, does not become comparative 
or superlative by having any of these adverbs joined to it, but only when 
er or est is added, or its form is otherwise altered. 

214. Rule X. — An adjective relates to the substan- 
tive whose meaning it qualifies or limits. 

To find this substantive, a question may be asked with who or what. 
Thus : — " The elephant is the largest of beasts." Question. The largest 
what of beasts ? Answer. The largest beast of beasts. Largest relates to 
beast understood. 

215. Parsing. — To parse an adjective, state its class ; 
if it can be compared, compare it and mention its de- 
gree ; tell what it relates to, and repeat Rule X. 

211. What prevents some adjectives from being compared ? 212. Besides annexing 
er and est, what other mode is there of expressing the same ideas? In what ad- 
jectives is the use of more and most more frequent ? In what adjectives are er and 
est preferred ? 213. Mention some other adverbs that may be joined to adjectives 
to express different degrees. When alone is an adjective said to be compared ? 
214. Recite Rule X. How can you find the substantive to which an adjective re* 
lates ? 215. How is an adjective parsed ? Learn the forma 



80 PARSING OF ADJECTIVES. 

June roses are the sweetest and most beautiful of 
flowers. 

June is a proper adjective, and relates to roses : — Rule, An adjective 
relates to the substantive whose meaning it qualifies or limits. 

Sweetest is a common adjective ; sweet, sweeter ; sweetest ; in the super- 
lative degree, and relates to flowers understood : — Rule* An adjective, &c. 

Most is an adverb. 

Beautiful is a common adjective, and relates to flowers understood :— 
Rule, An adjective, &c. 

EXERCISE. 

Parse the nouns, pronouns, articles, and adjectives: — Of the five 
senses, sight and hearing are the most useful and necessary to 
man. — There are no brighter tints or lovelier contrasts than an 
Italian sunset affords. — The smartest child sometimes makes the 
dullest man. — : Mezzofanti, one of the most industrious of men and 
greatest of linguists, was master of one hundred and fourteen 
languages. — A merrier party than this of ours, flying over snow- 
mantled fields and ice-bound brooks, can not be imagined. 



LESSON XXXIV. 

IRREGULAR COMPARISON". 

216. Some adjectives are compared irregularly :— ■ 

Pos. Comp. Sup. Pos. Comp. Sup. 

Bad, evil, ill, worse, worst. 1 Many, more, most. 

Good, better, best. Much, more, most. 

Little, less, lesser, least. Near, nearer, nearest, next. 

21V. Less is the common comparative of little, and means either not so 
yreat or not so much ; as, a less effort, less virtue. Lesser is sometimes 
used in poetry, less frequently in prose, but always with the meaning of 
not so great ; as the lesser light (that is, the moon), the lesser virtues, 
the lesser graces. 

216. Compare bad; good; little; many; much; near. 217. What is the com- 
mon comparative of little! What does it mean? What other form is used? 



ADJECTIVES COMPARED IRREGULARLY. 



81 



Sup. 

oldest, 

eldest. 



218. The following take both a regular and an irreg- 
ular form : — 

JPos. Comp. Sup. Pos. Comp. 

x x ( later, latest, I A1 , f older, 

Late, < _ ' , Old, < 

( latter, last. | ( elder, 

219. Later and latest are used with reference to time ; latter, to order; 
last, to either. We say, Later arrivals ; the latest tidings ; the latter cir- 
cumstance ; the last day ; the last in the line. 

220. Older and oldest are the common forms, and may always be used ; 
but, when members of the same family are spoken of, elder is preferred to 
older unless than follows, and eldest to oldest. We say, An older monu- 
ment ; the oldest wine ; an older brother than I ; an elder brother ; the 
eldest of the children. 

221. The following adjectives make a superlative 
in most : — 



Pos. 


Comp. 


Sup. 


Far, 


farther, 


farthest, farmost, farthermost 


Fore, 


former, 


foremost, first. 


Hind, 


hinder, 


hindmost, hindermost. 


Low, 


lower, 


lowest, lowermost. 


222. The following have 


no adjective positive, being 


formed for the most part from adverbs : — 


Adv. 


Comp. 


Sup. 


(Aft) 


After, 


aftmost, aftermost. 


(Forth) 


Further, 


furthest, furthermost. 


(In) 


Inner, 


inmost, innermost. 


(Out) 


( Outer, 
( Utter, 


outmost, outermost. 


utmost, uttermost. 


(Up) 


Upper, 


upmost, uppermost. 





Hither, 


hithermost. 





Nether, 


nethermost. 


223. The 


following have 


no comparative : — 



What is its meaning ? 218. Compare late. 219. To what do later and latest refer* 
To -what, latter and last? 220. Compare old. Which are the common forms? 
When are elder and eldest preferred? 221. Compare far ; fore; hind; low. 
222. From what do some adjectives in the comparative and superlative come? 
What come from aft? Forth? In? Out? Up? Compare hither ; nether. 223. Com- 
pare bottom ; front ; rear ; under ; north ; northern. What others are compared 

4* 



82 



COMPARISON OF COMPOUND ADJECTIVES. 



Pos. 


Sup. 


Pos. 


Sup. 


Bottom, 


bottommost. 


Top, 


topmost. 


End, 


endmost. 


Under, 


undermost. 


Front, 


frontmost. 


North, 


northmost. 


Head, 


headmost. 


Northern, 


northernmost. 


Hear, 


rearmost. 


South, 


southmost, &c, 



224. The comparatives superior and inferior, anterior and poster ior t 
prior and ulterior, junior and senior, major and minor, taken without 
change from the Latin language, have neither positive nor superlative. In 
stead of being followed by the conjunction than, like other comparatives, 
the first five take the preposition to, the last five take neither than nor to. 
Thus : — Superior to what I expected ; posterior to Milton ; prior to the 
Deluge; ulterior designs; Adam Jones, junior; a senior partner; the 
major part. 

225. A few compound adjectives are compared by 
varying their first element ; as, 

Pos. Comp. Sup. 

Good-natured, better-natured, best-natured. 

Ill-tempered, worse-tempered, worst-tempered. 

Bright-eyed, brighter-eyed, brightest-eyed. 

226. Caution. — Comparatives and superlatives must 
not be further compared ; nor should the adverbs more 
and most be used with them. Avoid, therefore, such 
expressions as worser, fartherest, more fairer, more 
inferior, most highest, most straitest, &c. 

EXEECIoEt 

Compare tender ; dull ; warm-hearted ; noble ; soft ; near ; 
narrow; south-western; late; evil; junior; long-headed; sweet; 
rear; pretty; eastern; good-tempered; bad-hearted; fit; much; 
outer; jolly; strong-minded. 

Parse the nouns, pronouns, articles, and adjectives : — The more 



like north, northern? 224. Mention some comparatives taken without change 
from the Latin. In what degrees are they not found ? Which are followed by the 
preposition to ? "Which take neither than nor to ? 225. How are a few compound 
adjectives compared ? Give examples. 226. What caution is given in connection 
with comparatives and superlatives ? What expressions must therefore be 
avoided % 



WRITTEN EXERCISE. 83 

haste, the less speed. — The first shall be last. — The wisest and 
best men sometimes make the worst mistakes. — The uppermost 
thought in my mind was of my eldest sister. — I never saw an 
uglier or worse-tempered horse than that. — The hindmost man and 
the frontmost were a mile apart. — A prior* engagement prevented 
me from calling on our junior partner. 



LESSON XXXV. 

A WRITTEN EXERCISE. 

Write the plural of alley ; ally ; sirocco ; stitch ; hemistich 
[pronounced hem' -is-titi] ; topaz ; Jehu ; lasso ; punctilio ; pen- 
knife ; wharf; dormouse ; penman ; washerwoman ; head ; hose ; 
chintz ; summons ; barn-yard ; roomful ; beau ; sarcophagus ; en- 
comium. — Of each of these plurals, tell whether it is a monosyllable, 
dissyllable, trisyllable, or polysyllable, and which syllable is accented. 

Write the correlative {masculine or feminine, as the case may be) 
of tailoress ; marchioness ; infauta ; benefactor ; Theodora ; Hen- 
rietta ; Victoria ; lady ; hart ; school-mistress ; Irishman ; male- 
servant ; husband ; priest ; nephew. — In the correlatives thus 
written, point out the proper and the improper diphthongs. 

Write the possessive singular and the possessive plural of lynx ; 
volley; mercy; soliloquy; delay; major-domo; deer; dwarf; 
salmon ; alderman ; talisman ; I ; thou ; she ; myself ; one ; other ; 
another ; who ; which ; whosoever. — Divide these possessives into 
their syllables. 

Prefix the proper form of the indefinite article to art ; bushel ; 
cape ; dress ; eddy ; ewer ; — eulogistic discourse ; frown ; girl ; 
hiss ; — humble prayer ; — high tower ; — honorable place ; — hopeful 
son ; heir ; ill ; jest ; keg ; lamb ; meal ; net ; owl ;— once mighty 
empire ; pail ; queen ; rock ; seal ; town ; urn ; unicorn ; vase; 
world ; — weighty secret ; xebec ; yacht ; zone. 

Prefix an appropriate common adjective to waiters ; clocks ; 
steam-boats ; paintings ; teachers ; cities ; sheep ; fields ; carriages ; 
carpets; oaks. 

* Parse thus '.—Prior is a common adjective, in the comparative degree ; posi- 
tive and superlative wanting ; it belongs to engagement :—Rule i An adjective, &c. 



84: THE VERB. THE SUBJECT. 

LESSON XXXVI. 

VERBS AND THEIR CLASSES. 

227. The Verb. — The fifth part of speech is the 
Verb. 

Assertioyis. Carlo barks. Carlo is cross. 

Exclamations. How Carlo barks ! How Carlo sleeps ! 

Questions. Can Carlo bark ? Has Carlo been hurt ? 

Commands. Carlo, do not bark. Carlo, eat your meat. 
In each of the above sentences, something is affirmed, or said, about 
Carlo. In the first line, we assert something about him ; in the second, 
we exclaim something ; in the third, we ask something ; in the fourth, we 
command something. The general term affirm is applied to all four of 
these modes of speaking. When we affirm, therefore, we may assert, ex- 
claim, ask, or command. 

228. Observe the words in italics in the eight sentences above. It is 
these that affirm. Barks, can bark, and do bark, affirm an action not 
exerted on any person or thing. Is and sleep affirm states. Has been 
hurt affirms an action exerted on Carlo. Eat affirms an action exerted 
on meat. Here, then, we have a new class of words, which affirm. They 
are called Verbs. 

229. A Verb is a word or words used to affirm an 
action or a state. 

A verb may consist of several words ; as, has been hurt, in the above 
example. 

230. The Subject. — That about which the action 
or state is affirmed, is called the Subject of the verb. 

The noun Carlo is the subject of the verb in each of the eight sen- 
tences at the commencement of the lesson, except the two that express 
commands — Carlo, do not bark, and Carlo, eat your meat. In these, Carlo 
is in the nominative independent, and the pronoun you understood is the 

227. What is the fifth part of speech ? Repeat two assertions respecting Carlo ,' 
two exclamations ; two questions ; two commands. What general term is applied 
to all four of these modes of speaking? 228. What words affirm in these sen- 
tences? What are such words called? 229. What is a Verb ? Of what may a 
verb consist? 230. What is the subject of a verb? What is the subject in the 
first six examples given at the commencement of the lesson ? What, in the other 



TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS. 85 

subject of the verb — do not [you] bark, eat [you] your meat. We learn, 
then, 1. That the subject of a verb may be a noun or pronoun. 2. That 
it is sometimes understood. 

231. The subject of a verb is easily found by putting who or what be- 
fore it. A question is thus asked, and whatever answers this question is 
the subject. Thus : in the sentence Carlo barks because he is hungry, we 
wish to know the subjects of the verbs barks and is. Who barks ? An- 
swer, Carlo ; Carlo is the subject of the verb barks. — Because who i* 
hungry? Answer, he; he is the subject of the verb is. 

232. Transitive and Intransitive Yerbs. — With 
regard to their meaning, verbs are distinguished as 
Transitive and Intransitive. 

A Transitive Verb is one that affirms an action ex- 
erted on some person or thing ; as, " Sarah broke the 
bottle." " The bottle is broken" In both of these 
examples, the breaking is exerted on the bottle. 

An Intransitive Verb is one that affirms a state, or 
an action not exerted on any person or thing ; as, 
" Sarah is happy." " Sarah wept." 

In these examples, is affirms a state ; wept, an action not exerted on an 
object. If we were told what Sarah wept — " Sarah wept tears of sorrow ,! 
— wept would be a transitive verb. 

233. It follows that the same verb may be transitive in one sentence 
and intransitive in another. Thus : — He turned his face. He turned. — 
Helen sings simple melodies. Helen sings. — I can not see the fire. I can 
not see. — Here the omission of the object in each case makes the verb in- 
transitive. 

234. Caution. — An intransitive verb is often followed by for, in, of, 
or some other preposition, with its object; as, " Beware of the wicked." 
" Many frowned upon his efforts." In such cases, do not mistake the 
verb for transitive ; the object belongs to the preposition and not to the 
verb. 



two? What do we learn, then, respecting the subject of a verb? 231. How may 
the subject of a verb be found? Give examples. 232. "With regard to their mean- 
ing, how are verbs distinguished ? Define a Transitive Verb. Define an Intran- 
sitive Verb. 233. What follows with respect to the same verb in different sen- 
tences ? 234. In what cases is there danger of mistaking an intransitive verb foi 
transitive ? In such constructions, to what does the object belong ? 



86 voice. 

exercise. 

Select the verbs (remembering that a verb sometimes consists 
of several words) ; state whether they are transitive or intransitive ; 
mention the subject of each, and, when the verb is transitive, its 
object : — Nimrod founded Babylon. — Steam weaves, knits, ploughs, 
grinds, saws, and saves man labor in a thousand ways. — Sleep, 
on now, and take your rest. — How many does intemperance 
ruin ! — "Will not a wise government establish schools, found col- 
leges, and foster education ? 

Caesar gained a complete victory, and sent this message to the 
senate : " I came, I saw, I conquered ! " — The lion skulks from 
man in the day-time; but he becomes bold at night, prowls 
around watch-fires, and often carries off human victims. 



LESSON XXXVII. 

VOICE. 

235. Look at the following sentences, wliicli express 
exactly" the same idea : — 

Csesar invaded Britain. 

Britain was invaded by Caesar. 
In the first sentence, the subject of the transitive verb invaded is 
Ccesar, the name of the person acting. Britain, the name of the thing 
acted upon, is the object of the verb, and therefore in the objective case. — 
In the second sentence, Britain is the subject of the transitive verb was 
invaded, and the former subject Casar is now in the objective case, the 
object of the preposition by. The subject of a transitive verb may there- 
fore denote that which acts or that which is acted upon, according to the 
form of the verb. 

236. Voice is that property of transitive verbs which 
distinguishes their subjects as acting or acted upon. 

237. There are two voices, the Active and the 
Passive. 

235. Repeat the two sentences presented at the commencement of the lesson. 
How do the ideas they express, compare ? State the different relations in which 
the nouns Casar and Britain stand in these sentences. What, then, may the sub- 
ject of a transitive verb denote ? 236. What is Voice ? 237. How many voices 






ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE. 87 

When its subject denotes that which acts, a transi- 
tive verb is said to be in the Active Voice ; as, " Caesar 
invaded Britain." 

When its subject denotes that which is acted upon, 
a transitive verb is said to be in the Passive Yoice ; as^ 
" Britain was invaded by Csesar." 

238. An intransitive verb has no voice. Its subject 
always denotes that which acts or is in a certain state. 
The form of an intransitive verb corresponds with that 
of a transitive verb in the active voice. 

239. We sometimes meet with an intransitive verb and a preposition 
following it used as a compound transitive verb, and as such thrown into 
the passive form. Thus : — " This event was looked for" " The awkward 
are laughed at." Here in parsing we must take looked for, laughed at, 
together, and call them transitive verbs in the passive voice. 

EXEECISEi 

Select the verbs ; state whether they are transitive or intransi- 
tive, and if transitive mention their voice. Parse the nouns and 
pronouns : — The patriot will struggle, bleed, and die, for his na- 
tive land. — Linseed oil, which is much used in the arts, is ex- 
pressed from the seeds of flax. — Athens was founded by Cecrops, 
who led thither a colony from Egypt. — Those who have once been 
imposed upon, are apt to be suspicious. 

Supply intransitive verbs. Point out the subject of each ;— 
Eoses — sweet. Hemp — in Kentucky. Tea — from China. Liv- 
ingston — in Africa. The Hungarians — against the Austrians. 
Victoria — over England. Cornwallis — at Yorktown. 

Supply transitive verbs. Point out the subject and the object of 
each : — Wolves — many sheep. Caravans — the Great Desert. As- 
tronomers closely — the heavens at night, and sometimes — comets. 
England — a powerful navy. The Turks — coffee. Travellers — 
many strange things. Cornwallis — his army at Yorktown. 

arc there ? Name them. When is a verb said to be in the active voice ? When, 
in the passive voice? 238. What verbs have no voice? What does the subject of 
*an intransitive verb always denote? With what does its form correspond? 
239. Show how an intransitive verb followed by a preposition is sometimes thrown 
into the passive form. 



88 THE PROPERTIES OF VERBS. MOOD. 

LESSON XXXVIII. 

PROPERTIES OF VERBS.- MOOD.- TENSE. 

210. Properties of Yerbs. — Look at the sentence } 
4 I love peace." 

Observe four things about the verb love in this sentence : — 

1. It affirms in a positive manner. Not I may love, or I can love ; but 
I love. 

2. It affirms that the act is going on at the present time. Not I did 
love yesterday, or I shall love to-morrow, but I love now. 

3. It affirms about the speaker. Not you love, or he loves; but I, the 
person speaking, love. 

4. It affirms about one person. Not we love, or many love ; but /, one 
person, love. — Hence we see that 

Yerbs have four properties ; viz., 

1. Mood, which distinguishes the manner of the 
affirmation. 

2. Tense, which distinguishes its time. 

3. Person,which distinguishes the affirmation as made 
about the speaker, that which is spoken to, or that which 
is spoken of. 

4. Number, which distinguishes the affirmation as 
made about one or more than one. 

241. Mood. — Mood is that property of the verb which 
distinguishes the manner in which it affirms. 

An action or state may be affirmed positively. "I depart." 

An action or state may be affirmed contingently, — that is, as possible. 
" I may depart." 

An action or state may be affirmed conditionally, — that is, as a condi- 
tion. "If I depart, he shall remain." 

An action or state may be affirmed imperatively, — that is, as a com- 
mand. " Depart this instant." 

240. In the sentence " Hove peace? what four things are to be observed about 
the verb love 7 How many properties have verbs ? Name them, and tell what 
oach distinguishes. 241. What is Mood ? Mention and illustrate the five ways in 
which we may affirm an action or state. Hence there are how many moods? 



MOOD AND TENSE. 89 

An action or state may be affirmed unlimitedly, — that is, without being 
limited to any subject. " I desire to depart." — Hence 

There are five ways in which we may affirm an action 
or state, and therefore there are five moods. They are 
called the Indicative, the Potential, the Subjunctive? 
the Imperative, and the Infinitive. 

242. A verb in the indicative, potential, subjunctive? 
or imperative mood, is limited to a subject, and is there- 
fore called Finite. 

243. Tense. — Tense is that property of the verb 
which distinguishes the time of what it affirms. 

An action may be affirmed as taking place, or a state as existing, at the 
present time. "1 depart" 

An action may be affirmed as having taken place, or a state as having 
existed, at some past time. " I departed" 

A past action or state may be affirmed as completed at the present 
time. U I have departed" 

A past action or state may be affirmed as completed at or before some 
other past time mentioned. " I had departed before my father arrived." 

An action may be affirmed as about to take place, or a state as about 
to exist. " I shall depart." 

A future action or state may be affirmed as about to be completed at 
or before some other future time mentioned. " I shall have departed by 
Christmas." — Hence 

There are six varieties of time, and therefore six 
tenses. They are called the Present, the Imperfect, 
the Perfect, the Pluperfect, the First Future, and the 
Second Future. 

244. The grand divisions of time are three in number ; the Present, 
the Past, and the Future. The present tense belongs to the first ; the im- 
perfect, perfect, and pluperfect, to the second ; the first future and second 
future, to the third. 

What are they called ? 242. In what moods is a verb limited to a subject? What 
is a verb in any of these moods called ? 243. What is Tense ? Mention and illus- 
trate the six varieties of time at which an action may be represented as taking 
place, or a state as existing. Hence there are how many tenses ? WTiat are they 
called? 244. Name the three grand divisions of time. Which of the tenses be- 
longs to the first of these ? Which of the tenses are past ? Which are future ? 



90 THE INDICATIVE MOOD. 



EXERCISE. 



Form five sentences with different moods of the verb pray, in 
which the action will be affirmed, 1. Positively ; 2. Contingently ; 

3. Conditionally ; 4. Imperatively ; 5. TJnlimitedly. For examples 
see the paragraphs in fine print § 241. 

Form six sentences with different tenses of the verb pray, in whicf 
the action will be affirmed, 1. As taking place now ; 2. As having 
taTcen place yesterday ; 3. As just completed at the present time ; 

4. As completed before some other past action; 5. As about to take 
place to-morrow ; 6. As to be completed before some other future 
action. For examples see § 243. 



LESSON XXXIX. 

THE INDICATIVE MOOD AND ITS TENSES. 

245. The Indicative Mood is used chiefly for asserting 
positively and asking questions ; also for expressing a 
condition or supposition. 

Positive Assertion. — I see the prince. 

Question. — Do you see the prince ? 

Condition. — If he will go, I will remain. 

Supposition. — If I had been wise, I would have remained. 

246. All six tenses are found in the indicative mood. 

247. Indicative Present. — This tense denotes, 

1. Present time simply ; as, " I ask" 

2. Present time used for the past, to bring what is 
affirmed more vividly before the eye ; as, " Napoleon 
at once crosses the river, engages the enemy, and gains 
a complete victory." 

3. Present time used for the future ; as, " When the 
war ends, prosperity will return." 

248. Signs. — None in the simple form. — I ask. 

245. For what is the Indicative Mood chiefly used? 246. Name its tenses. 
247. What does the present indicative denote, as regards time ? 248. What eiga 



TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE. 91 

Do in the negative, emphatic, and interrogative form. — You do not ask 
my pardon. I do ask it. Do you ask it ? 

Am in the progressive form, to denote the continuance of an action 
or state in an emphatic manner. — I am asking. 

Am in the passive voice. — I am asked. 

249. Indicative Imperfect. — This tense denotes, 

1. Past time simply ; as, " I asked." 

2. An action or state habitual in past time ; as,, 
" Napoleon took snuff," — that is, was in the habit of 
taking it. 

250. Signs. — None in the simple form. — I asked. 

Did in the negative, emphatic, and interrogative form. — You did not 
ask my pardon. I did ask it. Did you ask it ? 

Was in the progressive form and the passive voice. — I was asking, 
was asked. 

251. Indicative Perfect. — This tense denotes, 

1. The time of a past action or state completed at the 
present ; as, " I have dined." 

2. The time of a past action or state continued to the 
present ; as, " I have been looking for you every day." 

3. The time of a past action or state connected with 
the present by consequences or results still existing ; as, 
" Yirgil has written some noble verses." 

4. After when, till, before, after, &c, it is used in 
the sense of the second future. It then denotes the 
time of a future action or state which will be completed 
at or before some other future time mentioned ; as, " I 
will remain till I have seen my father." 

252. Sign. — Rave. — I have asked. I have been asking. I have been 
asked. 

has it in the simple form ? What, in the negative, emphatic, and interrogative 
form ? What, in the progressive form ? What, in the passive voice ? 249. What 
does the imperfect indicative denote ? 250. What sign has it in the simple form ? 
What, in the negative, emphatic, and interrogative form ? What, in the progress- 
ive form and the passive voice ? 251. How many varieties of time does the per- 
fect indicative denote ? What is the first of these ? What is the second ? What 
is the third ? What is the fourth ? 252. What is the sign of the perfect indie** 



92 TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE. 

253. Indicative Pluperfect. — This tense denotes the 
time of a past action or state completed at or before 
some other past time mentioned ; as, " Yirgil had 
started before the emperor arrived." 

254. Sign. — Had. — I had asked. I had been asking. I had been 
asked. 

255. Indicative First Future. — This tense denotes, 

1. Future time simply ; as, " We shall all die? 

2. Determination with respect to a future action or 
state ; as, " You shall not go? 

256. Signs. — Shall, will.- — I shall ask, I will ask. — I shall be asking \ 
I will be asking. I shall be asked, I will be asked. 

257. Indicative Second Future. — This tense denotes 
the time of a future action or state which will be com- 
pleted at or before some other future time mentioned ; 
as, " I shall have dined by the time you arrive." 

258. Signs. — Shall have, will have. — I shall have askea\ I will have 
asked. I shall have been asking, I will have been asking. I shall have 
been asked, I will have been asked. 

259. Interrogative Forms. — All the tenses of the 
indicative mood may be used interrogatively, — that is, 
to ask a question. In the interrogative forms of the 
tenses, the position of the subject is changed. Thus : — 



Pres. — Do you ask? 
Imperf. — Did you ask ? 
Perf. — Have you asked? 



Plu. — Had you asked ? 
1st Fu. — Will you ask? 
2nd Fu. — Will you have asked? 



EXERCISE. 

Select the verbs ; tell whether they are transitive or intransitive ; 
^tate their voice (if they are transitive), their mood, and tense : — 
Cuvier thinks it probable that whales sometimes live a thousand 

tive ? 253. What does the pluperfect indicative denote ? 254. What is the sign 
of this tense ? 255. What does the first future indicative denote ? 256. Mention 
its signs ? 25T. WTiat does the second future indicative denote ? 258. Mention its 
signs. 259. How may all the tenses of the indicative mood be used? Give the 
interrogative forme of the several tenses. 



THE POTENTIAL MOOD. 93 

years. — Do riches make the man ? — We have just seen Louis Phil- 
ippe, who was driven from the throne of France. — The English 
had settled Virginia before the Puritans reached Massachusetts. 
—Truth will prevail. — Shall falsehood triumph ? — The Persia will 
have arrived by Christmas. — Had you heard of the death of Hum- 
boldt? — Am I wrong? — Did Milton sell " Paradise Lost" for five 
guineas ? 



LESSON XL. 

THE POTENTIAL MOOD AND ITS TENSES. 

260. The Potential Mood is used for affirming an 
action or state either absolutely or as a condition or 
supposition. 

261. Four tenses are found in the potential mood. 
They have the same names as the first four tenses of the 
indicative, but may convey different ideas as regards 
time. The two futures are wanting in the potential, 
future time being often denoted by the present and the 
imperfect. 

262. Potential Present. — The present tense of the 
potential mood affirms permission, possibility, desire, 
ability, or necessity, with respect to what is either 
present or future. 

Present. Future. 

Permission. — You may play now. You may play next week. 

Possibility. — I may be wrong. I may start this evening. 
Desire. — Oh ! may she now be happy ! May you die happy ! 

Ability. — You certainly can see. You can see Yenus to-night. 

Necessity. — I must start at once. I must start to-morrow. 

{Negative.) I need not start now. I need not start to-morrow. 

260. What is the Potential Mood used for affirming ? 261. How many tenses 
are found in the potential mood? Name them. What two tenses are wanting in 
this mood ? By what tenses is future time often denoted ? 262. What does the 
present tense of the potential mood affirm ? Give examples in which permission 



94: TENSES OF THE POTENTIAL. 

It will be seen that the other words in the sentence determine whethei 
present or future time is denoted by the verb. 

263. Signs. — May, can, must, need. 

264. Potential Imperfect. — The imperfect potential 
is used as a leading verb to affirm, 

1. Present possibility, on condition of something, the opposite of which, 
it is implied, is really the case ; as, " I might think you honest, if you 
would admit my claim," — implying that you do not admit it. 

2. Ability with respect to what is past ; as, "I could not find it yes- 
terday." 

3. Determination with respect to what is either past, present, or future ; 
as, " He would not start yesterday." " He would not start this moment, if 
he could." " He would not start to-morrow, were it possible." 

4. Obligation with respect to what is either present or future ; as, " He 
should write home at once, to-morrow." 

265. The imperfect potential is used in a dependent 
clause, connected with a leading verb in the imperfect 
tense, to affirm permission, possibility, ability, determi- 
nation, or obligation, with respect to what is either 
past, present, or future. 

Permission. — He said that I might play yesterday, now, to-morrow. 
Possibility. — You said you might arrive yesterday, to-day, to-morrow. 
Ability. — He said that he could not meet me yesterday, now, to-morrow. 
Determination. — I said that I would go yesterday, now, to-morrow. 
Obligation. — I said that you should write yesterday, now, to-morrow. 
266. Signs. — Might, could, would, should. 

267. Potential Perfect. — The perfect tense of the 
potential mood affirms possibility, conviction, or neces- 
sity, with reference to a past action or state completed 
at the present time. 

is affirmed ; possibility ; desire ; ability ; necessity. How is it determined whether 
present or future time is denoted ? 263. What are the signs of the present poten 
tial ? 264. What four ideas may be conveyed by a leading verb in the imperfect 
potential ? 265. What does a verb in the imperfect potential, in a dependent clause, 
affirm ? Give an example in which permission is affirmed ; possibility ; ability ; 
determination ; obligation. 266. What are the signs of the imperfect potential ? 
267. What does the perfect potential affirm ? What is the sign of the perfect po- 
tential when possibility is expressed % What is the sign in the interrogative form, 



TENSES OF THE POTENTIAL. 95 

Signs. (Possibility.) May have. — He may have dined, — that is, it is possible. 

(Possibility, interrogative form.) Can have. — Can he have dined? — 
that is, is it possible ? 

(Possibility, negative form.) Can have. — He can not have dined, — 
that is, it is not possible. 

(Possibility, negative interrogative form.) May have. — May he not 
have dined ? — that is, is it not possible ? 

(Conviction.) Must have. — He must have gone, — that is, I am con- 
vinced that he has. 

(Necessity.) Need have. — Need he have gone ? He need not have 
gone. That is, was it necessary ? It was not necessary. 

268. Potential Pluperfect. — The pluperfect tense 
of the potential mood affirms possibility, ability, deter- 
mination, willingness, or obligation, with reference to a 
past action or state completed at some past time. 

Signs. (Possibility.) Might have. — I might have saved his life. 
(Ability.) Could have. — I could have saved his life. 
(Willingness.) Would have. — I would have died to save his life. 
(Obligation.) Should have. — You should have tried to save his life. 

269. Interrogative Forms. — All the tenses of the 
potential mood may be used interrogatively. Thus : — 

Present. — May I ask ? Can I ask ? Must I ask ? Need I ask ? 
Imperfect— Might I ask ? Could I ask ? Would I ask ? Should I ask ? 
Perfect. — May I not have asked? Can I have asked? Must I have 

asked ? Need I have asked ? 
Pluperfect. — Might I have asked ? Could I have asked ? Would I 

have asked ? Should I have asked ? 

EXERCISE. 

Select the verbs ; tell whether they are transitive or intransitive ; 
state their voice (if they are transitive), their mood and tense, and 
what each affirms. [Thus : — Napoleon could not remain at rest. 
Could remain is an intransitive verb, in the potential mood, im- 

when possibility is expressed ? In the negative form ? In the negative interroga- 
tive form? What is the sign when conviction is expressed? When necessity is 
expressed ? 268. What does the pluperfect potential affirm ? What is the sign 
when possibility is expressed ? When ability is expressed ? willingness ? obliga- 
tion? 269. How may all the tenses of the potential mood be used? Give the in- 
terrogative forms of the several tenses. 



96 THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

perfect tense, and affirms ability with respect to what is past.] 
We must start at once, for it may snow. — No man need despair. — 
Many boys could learn, if they would study. — "Wellington feared 
that the enemy might fall on his rear. — Can we have mistaken 
the way ? We must have done so. 

Washington might have made himself king. — Caesar should 
have paused at the Kubicon. — Possibly he may have done so. — 
Can this be true? — Ye would not come to me that ye might 
have life. — Cleopatra need not have fled. 



LESSON XLL 

THE SUBJUNCTIVE AND IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

270. The Subjunctive Mood is used chiefly for ex- 
pressing a condition or supposition ; as, " Unless thou 
go, I will not stay." " Though he slay me, yet will I 
love him." 

271. This mood is called Subjunctive, because it is used in a clause 
subjoined to the leading part of a sentence. Thus, in the first example 
given above, the clause unless thou go is subjoined to the leading part of 
the sentence / will not stay, to express the condition of my staying ; and 
the verb go is in the subjunctive mood. 

272. The subjoined clause is generally connected with the rest of the 
sentence by if, that, though, although, lest, unless, or whether. These con- 
nectives are called Conjunctions. 

273. Sometimes the conjunction is omitted; as, "See [that] thou 
do it." 

Even when a conjunction is used, it is not always a sign of the sub- 
junctive mood. The indicative or potential may follow in the subjoined 
clause ; as, "See that he does it well." 

274. The subjunctive mood has but two tenses, the 
Present and the Imperfect. 

270. What is the subjunctive mood chiefly used to express ? 271. Why is this 
mood called subjunctive 7 Illustrate this, 272. How is the subjoined clause gen- 
erally connected with the rest of the sentence? What are these connectives 
called? 273. What do we sometimes find respecting the conjunction? What 
moods, besides the subjunctive, may follow a conjunction ? 274. Name the tenses 



TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 97 

275. Subjunctive Present. — This tense is used, 

1. To affirm a condition or supposition connected 
with some future action or state ; as, " If he promise, 
he will perform." But, in such cases, the indicative is 
now more frequently used : " If he promises, he will 
perform." 

2. It is used after a conjunction following a verb 
that commands, to express the action or state com- 
manded or forbidden ; as, " Take care that thou re- 
main" " Beware lest thou sin" 

Also in similar constructions after it is necessary, it is desirable, &c. ; 
as, "It is necessary that these rules be observed" In such cases, the indica- 
tive — " It is necessary that these rules are observed" — would be wrong. 

276. Signs. — In the active voice, usually none, rarely do. — " If he 
but touch the hills," or "If he do but touch the hills, they will smoke." 

In the passive voice, be. — If I be loved. 

277. Subjunctive Imperfect. — The imperfect tense 
of the subjunctive mood expresses a wish or supposi- 
tion, and implies that the opposite of the thing wished 
or supposed is really the case. Thus : — 

Wish. — Oh that he were innocent (implying that he is not) ! 
Supposition. — If I were now as strong as I was a year ago, I would be- 
gin the work at once (implying that I am not so strong). 

278. If the imperfect indicative is used in such suppositions, in stead 
of the imperfect subjunctive, it implies that the thing supposed is really 
the case ; as, " If I was a spy, I still had rights." — When the form of the 
verb does not show whether it is in the indicative or the subjunctive, 
it is necessary in parsing to apply this test. If the thing supposed is 
really the case, the verb is in the indicative ; if not, in the subjunctive. 

of the subjunctive mood. 275. What is the present subjunctive used to affirm? 
What is more frequently used in such cases ? Under what circumstances is the 
present subjunctive used after a conjunction ? In what similar constructions is it 
also employed ? 276. What is the sign of the present subjunctive in the active 
voice? In the passive? 277. What does the imperfect subjunctive express? 
What does it always imply? Give examples. 278. If the imperfect indicative is 
used in such suppositions, what does it imply ? How are you to tell the mood hi 

5 



98 THE IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

279. Signs. — In the active voice, usually none, rarely did. — If I asked\ 
if I did ask (implying that I did not). 

In the passive voice, were. — If I were asked (implying that I am not). 

280. The Imperative Mood has only one tense, called 
the Present. It expresses a command, an entreaty, an 
exhortation, or permission, with reference either to 
present or future time. 

Command. — Do not talk (either now or hereafter). 
Entreaty. — Do not weep y or weep not. 
Exhortation. — Do not sin, or sin not. 
Permission. — Stay till Monday, if you wish. 

281. Signs. — In the active voice, either none at all or do. — Ask, or do 
ask. 

In the passive voice, be. — Be asked. 

282. The subject of a verb in the imperative mood is generally under- 
stood. Thou or you understood is the subject in each of the examples just 
given : — Do not thou or you talk, &c. 

EXERCISE. 

Select the verbs; tell whether they are transitive or intransitive ; 
mention their voice (if they are transitive), their mood, and tense:— 
If he be mad, I will eschew his company.— Though thou fall into 
Bin, He will lift thee up. — Take care lest thy temper betray thee. 
— "Whether thou be guilty or not, I will not leave thee. — If thou 
do but wink, he will espy it. — Kespect yourself, and others will 
respect you.— Plough deep, while others sleep. — If I were a beg- 
gar, I would still be an honest one. — What right had he to insult 
her, if she was a beggar ? 

If you are wise, pause for a moment, and give up a course 
that can lead only to ruin. — Oh that men did but know the 
sweets of innocence ! — If I were asked where nature assumes the 
strangest forms, I should say in Australia. — Eest assured that 
nothing has been created without some wise purpose. — If Caesar 
was ambitious, he was at the same time magnanimous. 



parsing? 279. What is the sign of the imperfect subjunctive in the active voice 1 
In the passive ? 28Q. How many tenses has the imperative mood ? What does it 
express? 281. What is the sign of the imperative in the active voice? Intho 
passive ? 282. How may the imperative mood generally be known ? 



THE INFINITIVE MOOD. 99 

LESSON XLII. 

THE INFINITIVE MOOD.— PERSON AND NUMBER OF VERBS. 

283. The Infinitive Mood expresses an action or state 
not limited to a subject. 

It has two tenses, called the Present and the Perfect. 

284. Infinitive Present. — This tense expresses an 
uncompleted action or state not limited to a subject. 
It may be used in connection with what is past, present, 
or future ; as, " I longed to see Ireland." " I long to see 
Ireland." " I shall go to see Ireland." 

285. Sign. — Generally, to. — To ash; to be asking; to be asked. — But 
after certain verbs to is omitted ; as, " He bade me [to] ask" 

286. Infinitive Perfect. — This tense expresses a 
completed action or state not limited to a subject. It 
may be used in connection with past or present time ; 
as, " The Phoenicians were thought to have settled Ire- 
land." ""Washington is said to have teen high-tempered." 

287. Sign. — To have. — To have asked; to have been asking; to have 
been asked, 

288. Neither the subjunctive, the imperative, nor the 
infinitive, can be used interrogatively. 

289. Person and Number of Verbs. — Every finite 
verb has Person and Number. These correspond with 
the same properties in nouns. 

290. Person. — A verb is said to be in the First Per- 
son, when it affirms of a person or persons speaking ; 

283. What does the Infinitive Mood express ? Name its tenses. 284. What is 
expressed by the present infinitive ? 285. What is generally the sign of the present 
infinitive ? 286. What is expressed by the perfect infinitive ? With what time 
may it be used in connection ? 287. What is the sign of the perfect infinitive ? 288. 
What moods can not be used interrogatively ? 289. What properties has every 
finite verb? With what do the person and number of verbs correspond? 290. 
When is a verb said to be in the first person? When, in the second? When, in 



100 PERSON AND NUMBER OF VERBS. 

in the Second Person, when it affirms of an object or 
objects spoken to ; in the Third Person, when it affirms 
of an object or objects spoken of. 

Number.* — A verb is said to be in the Singular Num- 
ber, when it affirms of one person or thing; in the 
Plural, when it affirms of more than one. 

The person and number of a verb, therefore, depend 
on the person and number of its subject. Hence 

291. Kttle XI. — A verb agrees with its subject in 
person and number. 

I pray ; — the verb pray is 1st, sing., because its subject /is 1st, sing. 

Tliou prayest ; — pray est is 2d, sing., because its subject thou is 2d, si. 

He prays ;— prays is 3rd, sing., because its subject he is 3rd, sing. 

We pray ;—pray is 1st, plural, because its subject we is 1st, plural. 

You pray ; — pray is 2nd, plural, because its subject you is 2nd, plural. 

They pray ; — pray is 3rd, plural, because its subject they is 3rd, plural. 

In the second and third person singular, given above, the verb shows 
its person and number by its form, — prayest, prays. In the other four 
parts the form is the same, and the person and number of the verb can be 
told only by finding those of its subject. 

292. Kule XL does not apply to verbs in the infinitive mood, for they 
have no subject. 

293. Usages of the Infinitive. — A verb in the infini- 
tive may be used as the subject of a finite verb ; as, 
" To die for one's country is glorious." The infinitive 
to die is the subject of the finite verb is. 

294. A verb in the infinitive may also be used to 
limit the meaning of some other word. 

1. Of a noun ; as, " It is my duty to go." 

2. Of a pronoun ; as, "For me to go would be wrong." 

the third? When is a verb said to be in the singular number ? When, in the 
plural ? On what do the person and number of a verb depend ? 291. Recite Rule 
XI. Give examples of the rule. In which of these examples does the verb show 
its person and number by its form ? How are its person and number to be told in 
the other parts? 292. To what verbs does Rule XI. not apply? 293. What is the 
first usage of the infinitive mood? 294. For what else may a verb in the infinitive 
be used ? Name the parts of speech that the infinitive may limit, and give an 



USAGES OF THE INFINITIVE. 101 

8. Of an adjective ; as, " It is hard to go" 

4. Of a verb ; as, " I wish to go." 

5. Of an adverb ; as, " I have walked enough to tire me out." 

6. Of a preposition ; as, " I am about to go" 

7. Of a conjunction; as, " Are you so foolish as to go? " 

295. Finally, a verb in the infinitive may be used 
independently, — that is, without limiting or relating to 
any other word ; as, " To speak plainly, I think you are 
dishonest." 

296. Kule XII. — A verb in the infinitive is used as 
a subject, or limits the meaning of some other word, or 
stands independently in the sentence. 

297. Parsing. — To parse a verb, state its class, voice 
(if transitive), mood, and tense ; if finite, its person and 
number, what it agrees with, and Rule XI. ; if in the 
infinitive, what verb it is the subject of, or what it 
limits, and Rule XII. Thus : — 

Though labor may be hard, to do nothing is still 
harder. 

May be is an intransitive verb, in the potential mood, present tense, 
third person, singular number, and agrees with its subject labor : — Rule, A 
verb agrees with its subject in person and number. 

To do is a transitive verb, in the active voice, infinitive mood, present 
tense, the subject of the verb is : — Rule, A verb in the infinitive is used as 
a subject, or limits the meaning of some other word, or stands independ- 
ently in the sentence. 

Is is an intransitive verb, in the indicative mood, present tense, third 
person, singular number, and agrees with the infinitive to do for its sub- 
ject : — Rule, A verb agrees, &c. 

The Hebrews are thought to have invented letters. 

Are thought is a transitive verb, in the passive voice, indicative mood, 
present tense, third person, plural number, and agrees with its subject He- 
brews : — Rule, A verb agrees, &c. 

To have invented is a transitive verb, in the active voice, infinitive mood, 



example of each. 295. Finally, how may a verb in the infinitive be used ? 296. 
Recite Rule XII. 297. How is % verb to be parsed ? Learn the parsing forms. 



102 PARTICIPLES. 

perfect tense, and limits the meaning of the verb are thought : — Rule, A 
verb in the infinitive, &c. 



EXE RCISE. 



Parse the nouns, pronouns, articles, adjectives, and verbs : — Ed- 
ucation makes the man. — Cato used to say, " The Eomans rule the 
world, but women rule the Eomans." — Those who win, may 
laugh. — The property of a state should educate its children. — See 
that thou be not wise in thy own conceit. — Gunpowder may have 
been known to the Chinese centuries ago. — A trombone was dis- 
covered in Herculaneum, where it had lain nearly two thousand 
years under the ashes. — Men need not perish. 



LESSON XLIII. 

PARTICIPLES. 

298. To verbs belong participles. 

I finished my meal and left the table. 

Having finished my meal, I left the table. 

Observe the two sentences just given. They convey the same idea, but 

in different forms. The one directly affirms that I finished my meal, the 

other assumes or implies it. In the one, the action is expressed by the 

verb finished ; in the other, by having finished, which we call a Participle. 

299. A Participle is a form of the verb that generally 
qualifies or limits the meaning of a substantive, by as- 
suming some action or state in connection with it. 

300. There are three participles ; the Present, the 
Perfect, and the Compound Perfect. 

301. The Present Participle assumes an action or state 
as going on at the time of some other action or state, 
past, present, or future. 

298. What words are embraced among verbs ? Give the two sentences pre- 
sented at the commencement of the lesson. Point out the difference between 
them. 299. I>enne a Participle. 300. How many participles are there? Givo 
their names. SOI. How does the present participle assume an action or state? 



PERFECT PARTICIPLE. 103 

Past— Taking leave of you, I departed. 1 In each case) tte ta1cing u<m 
Pres. — Taking leave of you, I depart. V is represented as going on at the 
Put— Taking leave of you, I will depart. J time of tn « departing. 

302. In the active voice, the present participle ends in trig ; as, asking, 
running. In the passive voice, its sign is being ; as, being asked. 

303. The Perfect Participle assumes an action or state 
as completed at the time of some other action or state, 
past, present, or future. 

Past — He died, respected by all. In each case, respected implies 

Pres. — He dies, respected by all. > an action completed at the time 
Put— He will die, respected by all. J of ^ death. 

304. The perfect participle generally ends in ed, t, or n, and has the 
same form in both voices. In the active voice, it seldom if ever appears 
alone, but is used in forming the compound tenses ; as, I have asked, I 
had brought, I shall have fallen. In the passive voice, it is used both 
alone and in forming the compound tenses ; as, u He died, loved and re- 
spected. 11 " I am loved and hope to be respected. 11 

305. The Compound Perfect Participle assumes an ac- 
tion or state as completed before some other action or 
state, past, present, or future. 

Past — Raving learned my lesson, I took a walk. 

Pres. — Having learned my lesson, I take a walk every day. 

Put — After having learned my lesson to-morrow, I shall take a walk. 

306. In the active voice, the compound perfect participle is formed by 
prefixing having to the perfect participle ; in the passive voice, by prefix- 
ing having been. — (Active.) Having asked, having brought, having fallen. 
(Passive.) Having been asked, having been brought. 

307. To sum up, transitive verbs have three parti- 
ciples in the active voice, and three in the passive. 

Give examples. 302. How does the present participle end in the active voice? 
What is its sign in the passive voice? 303. How does the perfect participle assume 
an action or state? Give examples. 304. How does the perfect participle gener- 
ally end? For what alone is it used in the active voice? How is it used in the 
passive ? 305. How does the compound perfect participle assume an action or 
state? 306. How is it formed in the active voice? How, in the passive? 307. 
Sum up what has been said on this subject. Give the participles of the verb ask. 
Give those of fall. 



104 EXERCISE ON PARTICIPLES. 

Intransitive verbs, having no passive voice, make but 
three participles, corresponding in form with those of 
transitive verbs in the active voice. 



Present. Perfect. Compound Perfect. 

\ Act. Asking, asked, having asked. 

! Pas. Being asked, asked, having been asked. 

Intransitive. Falling, fallen, having fallen. 



Transitive. ] 



EXERCISE. 

Select and name the participles, stating their voice when they 
are transitive : — Burgoyne having surrendered at Saratoga, and 
the North being thus freed from the fear of invasion, joy spread 
through the land. — By writing frequently and carefully correcting 
what we have written, we learn to write well. — Having been 
condemned to death, Socrates refused to save his life by secretly 
escaping. — Hoping for the best, yet fearing the worst, Congress, 
though surrounded by difficulties, took measures to increase the 
army. 

Turn each verb in italics into a participle, and, by omitting the con, 
junction or subject, complete the sentence properly without altering 
its meaning. [Thus : — Galileo constructed a telescope for himself 
and made many important discoveries in astronomy. — Changed. 
Having constructed a telescope for himself, Galileo made, &c] 
Do what is right, and leave the consequences to take care of them- 
selves. — Gold, when it is mixed with copper, becomes harder. — 
Webster arose and addressed the meeting. — Braddock rejected the 
advice of Washington, and fell into a fatal ambuscade. — Porson 
had been aslced his opinion, but did not commit himself. — The In- 
dians of America are thinned out by intemperance and disease, 
and are daily becoming less numerous. 



LESSON XLIV. 

CONSTRUCTION OF PARTICIPLES. 

308. Cautions. — Do not confound a participle with 
an adjective of the same form. Both qualify or limit 

308. "With what must a participle not be confounded ? How may adjectives 



CONSTRUCTION OF PARTICIPLES. 105 

the meaning of substantives ; but a participle implies 
in addition an action or state going on or completed, 
and may govern an object like a finite verb. 

Adjectives. — A hard-working man (one that is in the habit of working 
hard) ; a travelling clerk ; an amusing story ; an enlightened mind. 

Participles. — A man working hard (on some particular occasion) ; a 
clerk travelling in Georgia ; amusing us with a story ; a mind enlightened 
by education. 

309. Do not confound the participle in ing with a 
participial noun of the same form. If the word in 
question has an adjective joined to it, it is a noun. If 
it is modified by an adverb or governs an object, it is 
a participle. 

Noun. — Reading is taught in every school, yet good reading is rare. 
Part. — The art of reading well is acquired by imitating a good teacher. 

310. Participles used independently. — Participles 
generally qualify or limit the meaning of substantives. 
Sometimes, however, they do not relate to any particu- 
lar noun or pronoun, and then they are said to be used 
independently. A participle used independently is 
often the object of a preposition. 

" The art of reading well is all-important." " Generally speaking, the 
hardest workers are the happiest." — Here the participles reading and 
speaking, not relating to any particular noun or pronoun, are used inde- 
pendently. Reading is the object of the preposition of. 

311. Ktjle XIII. — Participles are used independent- 
ly, or relate to the substantives whose meaning they 
qualify or limit. 

312. A participle, whether used independently or not, may take a noun 
or pronoun for its object. This noun or pronoun is in the objective case, 

and participles be distinguished? Give examples. 309. How may the participle 
in ing be distinguished from a participial noun of the same form ? Illustrate this. 
310. When are participles said to be used independently ? Of what is a participle 
eo used often the object ? Give examples. 311. Recite Rule XIII. 312. In what 
case is a substantive that is the object of a participle ? According to what rule? 



106 PARSING OF PARTICIPLES. 

according to Rule IV., A substantive that is the object of a verb or prep- 
osition is in the objective case. — "Leading his soldiers over the Alps, 
Hannibal entered Italy." " Leading soldiers over the Alps is no easy 
matter." In each of these sentences, soldiers is in the objective case, the 
object of the participle leading. 

313. Rule XIY. — A substantive which, in stead of 
being modified by a participle, is made to modify the 
latter, is put in the possessive case. 

" I saw John writing." Here John is the object seen. Hence the noun 
John is in the objective case. The participle writing qualifies its meaning T 
and therefore relates to it. "I was surprised at John's writing so well." 
Here the writing so well is the thing at which I was surprised. The noun 
is no longer modified by the participle writing, but itself modifies the lat- 
ter by telling whose writing is meant. It is therefore, according to Rule 
XIV., put in the possessive case — John's. 

314. Parsing. — The participle, its modifying sub- 
stantive, and its object, are parsed as follows : — 

Every thing depends on the pwpiVs studying dili- 
gently. 

Pupil's is a common noun, in the third person, singular number, com- 
mon gender, possessive case, and modifies the participle studying : — Rule, 
A substantive which, in stead of being modified by a participle, is made to 
modify the latter, is put in the possessive case. 

Studying is the present participle active of the intransitive verb study, 
used independently as the object of the preposition on : — Rule, Participles 
are used independently, or relate to the substantives whose meaning they 
qualify or limit. 

Saving made a code of laws for his countrymen, 
Lycurgus left Sparta. 

Having made is the compound perfect participle active of the transi- 
tive verb make, and relates to the noun Lycurgus : — Rule, Participles are 
used independently, &c. 

Code is a common noun, in the third person, singular number, objective 
case, the object of the participle having made : — Rule, A substantive that 
is the object of a verb or preposition is in the objective case. 

313. Recite Rule XIV. Show its application in an example. 314. Learn the 
parsing forms. 



COMPOUND TENSES. — AUXILIARIES. 107 

EXERCISE. 
Parse the nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and participles : — We can 
Jearn much by simply observing and remembering what we see. — 
Filled with remorse on account of having betrayed his Lord, Judas 
killed himself. — Having been thrown into the sea, Jonah was 
swallowed by a great fish. — Bayonets are so called from having 
been invented at Bayonne, in France. — Arnold, having matured 
his plans, met Andre near the river, and after arranging matters 
with him returned to the fort. — Disappointed at not having obtained 
an interview with the queen, Columbus was about leaving Spain. 



LESSON XLV. 

AUXILIARIES. -BE, HAVE. 

315. Auxiliaries. — Some tenses of the verb consist 
of two or more words ; as, have asked, shall have asked. 
These are called Compound Tenses. 

They are formed by joining words known as Auxil- 
iaries to some part of the principal verb. Auxiliary 
signifies aiding / and these words are so called because 
they aid in forming the compound tenses. 

316. The auxiliaries are he in all its tenses, have in 
certain tenses, do, did, will, shall, may, can, must, need, 
might, could, would, and should. 

317. Parsing. — In parsing, auxiliaries must be taken with their prin- 
cipal verb, even though other words come between. " Sarah would not 
have thus deceived me." Parse the words woidd have deceived together, as 
a transitive verb, in the active voice, potential mood, pluperfect tense, 
third person, singular number, &c. 

318. When several verbs are used in the same construction, the aux- 
iliary is generally expressed with the first and understood with the rest ; as, 

315. What is meant "by Compound Tenses ? How are the compound tenses 
formed? What does auxiliary mean ? Why are the auxiliaries so called? 316. 
Mention the auxiliaries. 317. In parsing, how must the auxiliaries be taken ? 318. 
When several verbs are used in the same construction, what is said of the auxil- 
iary ? On the other hand, what is sometimes understood ? In this case, how must 



108 THE AUXILIARY BE. 

u I am surprised, grieved, and shocked at your proposal." To repeat 
the auxiliary [am grieved, and am shocked] would be inelegant. But 
grieved and shocked are to be parsed as if am preceded each, — that is, as in 
the passive voice, indicative mood, present tense, &c. 

On the other hand, the principal verb is sometimes understood, and the 
auxiliary alone expressed ; as, " May I go ? You may." Here parse may 
as an auxiliary used for may go, an intransitive verb, in the potential 
mood, present tense, &c. 

319. Conjugation. — By the Conjugation of a verb is 
meant the process of carrying it through its several 
moods, tenses, persons, and numbers. 

To distinguish the persons in conjugating, we prefix the pronouns /, 
thou, he, in the singular ; we, you, they, in the plural. In the subjunctive 
mood, we prefix the conjunction if. These words must be parsed separately 
from the verb. 

320. We shall now consider the auxiliaries in turn. 

321. Be, in its various parts, is the common verb with 
which we affirm existence ; as, " Be happy." u I am 
happy." 

Besides appearing as a principal verb, he is used in 
all its parts as an auxiliary. 

Combined with the present participle active, it makes the progressive 
form of the various tenses of the active voice ; as, I am riding, I was ruling. 
Combined with the perfect participle passive, it forms the passive tenses ; 
as, I am ruled, I was ruled. 

The verb be is conjugated in Lesson XLVIII. 

322. Have is used both as a principal verb and as an 
auxiliary. As a principal verb, it is transitive, and may 
be carried through all the moods and tenses of both 
voices. As an auxiliary, it is used in the compound 
perfect participle, and in six tenses, as follows : — 

we parse the auxiliary ? 319. What is meant by conjugating a verb? How do we 
distinguish the persons in conjugating ? In the subjunctive mood, what do we 
prefix ? 321. What do we affirm, with the verb be ? Besides appearing as a prin- 
cipal verb, how is be used? What does it form, when combined with the present 
participle active ? What, when combined with the perfect participle passive ? 322. 
How is have used ? In what parts is it used as an auxiliary ? Of what tense is 



THE AUXILIARY HAVE. 109 



Indic. Perf. — Have. 

Indic. Plu. — Had. 

Indic. Sec. Fit. — Shall have. 



Poten. Perf. — May have. 
Poten. Pltj. — Might have. 
Infin. Perf. — To have. 



323. The first two of these are conjugated thus : — 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 



f 1. I have, We have, 

2. Thou hast, You have, 

3. He has ; They have. 



1. I had, We had, 

2. Thouhadst, You had, 

3. He had; They had. 



324. In solemn style, have makes hath in the third singular ; as, " He 
hath offended God." 

EXEECISEi 

Insert verbs in compound tenses, and state the mood and tense of 

each: — The Spanish Moors to have invented steel needles. 

The first settlers of America Behring's Strait. Brick-making 

is said one of the earliest arts. The Chinese ac- 
quainted with the mariner's compass "before it in Europe. 

You that I was rude, but I assure you no offence was in- 
tended. Had he not known how to swim, he . In some 

countries, forgers for life. The boiler exploded, and many 

passengers . 



LESSON XL VI. 

THE AUXILIARIES DO, DID, WILL, SHALL. 

325. Do and did are used both as principal verbs and 
as auxiliaries. Do appears as an auxiliary in the pres- 
ent tense of the indicative, subjunctive, and imperative ; 
did in the imperfect, indicative and subjunctive. 

326. In the subjunctive mood, these auxiliaries re- 
main unchanged. In the indicative, they are conjugated 
thus : — 

have the auxiliary ? Had 7 323. Carry have through its persons and numbers. 
Do the same with had. 324. In solemn style, what does have make in the third 
singular ? 

325. How are do and did used ? In what parts of the verb does do appear as 
an auxiliary? In what, did! 326. Conjugate do anddti in the subjunctive mood. 



10 




WILL AND SMALL. 






Singular, 


Plural. Singular. 


Plural. 


8 


ri. i do, 


We do, 


1. I did, 


We did, 


o 


2. Thou dost, 


You do, 


2. Thou didst, 


You did, 


£ 


[ 3. He does ; 


They do. 


3. He did; 


They did. 



327. As a principal verb, do makes doest or dost [pronounced dust] in 
the second singular, and do'eth or doth \dutli\ in the solemn form of the 
third singular. As an auxiliary, it makes dost alone in the second singular, 
and doth in the solemn form of the third. " Thou doest, dost, wonders ; he 
do'eth j doth miracles: " but " Thou dost not speak; doth he not hear? " 

328. Will is used as a principal verb, and also as an 
auxiliary in the future tenses. It is differently con- 
jugated, according to its use. Thus : — 

Principal Verb. Auxiliary. 



1. 


I will, 


We will, 


1. I will, 


We will, 


2. 


Thou wiliest, 


You will, 


2. Thou wilt, 


You will, 


3. 


He wills ; 


They will. 


3. He will ; 


They will 



ft, 

329. Shall, like will, appears as an auxiliary in the 
future tenses. It is thus conjugated : — 

Singular. — I shall, thou shalt, he shall ; 
Plural. — We shall, you shall, they shall. 

330. Force of will and shall. — "We saw in § 255 
that the first future implies, 1. Future time simply. 
2. Determination. 

When future time simply is implied, shall is used as 
the auxiliary in the first person, and will in the second 
and third. I shall, thou wilt, he will ; We shall, you 
will, they will. 

When determination is implied, will is used in the 
first person, shall in the second and third. I will, thou 
shalt, he shall; We will, you shall, they shall. 

In the indicative. 327. What differences are there in the conjugation of do as a 
principal verb and as an auxiliary ? 328. How is icill used ? Conjugate will as a 
principal verb. Conjugate it as an auxiliary. 329. In what tenses does shall ap- 
pear as an auxiliary ? Conjugate shall. 330. What does the first future tense im- 
ply? Go through the first future tense, when future time simply is implied. Go 
through \he first futee, when determination is implied. When determination is 



WILL AND SHALL. 1H 

In this latter form, the speaker declares his determination, in the first 
person about himself ; in the second, about the person spoken to ; in the 
third, about the person or thing spoken of. A promise or threat may 
therefore be conveyed. Thus : — " I will go, if I perish in the attempt [it 
is my determination]." " You shall have what you want [it is my deter- 
mination — promise]." " He shall suffer for this insult [it is my deter- 
mination — threat] ." 

331. Will emphasized in the second and the third person implies deter- 
mination in the person spoken to or of, respecting his own acts; as, " He 
will go [he is determined to do so]." " They will not repent [they are 
determined not to do so]." 

332. In questions, shall and will have a different 
force. 

Shall, in the first person, asks for advice; "Shall I go?" In the 
second person, it denotes futurity simply ; " Shall you go ? " In the third 
person, it asks for the determination of the person addressed respecting 
some person or thing spoken of. " Shall this man rule over us [is it your 
determination] ? " 

On the other hand, will in all three persons implies simple futurity ; 
"Will I, you, he, be in time?" In the second and the third person, it 
also sometimes asks for the determination of the person spoken to or of; 
as, " Will you accept my invitation ? " 

333. Will sometimes expresses merely what is habitual; as, "He will 
sit and read for hours [he is in the habit of doing so]." 

EXERCISE. 

Correct the auxiliaries: — Doest thou not see thy danger? — 
He doeth not walk safely, that walks in the paths of sin. — Thou 
shalst not steal. — To whom will we flee for aid ? — I will drown ! 
Shall nobody save me ? — Shall he not have departed ? — Wilst thou 
not stay ? — No matter who is present, I shall state my views. 

Supply the proper auxiliary : — I expect that I [will or shall f] 
see my father. — I have resolved that I [will or shall f] rise early. 
— [ Will or shall f] it be right to let this go on ? — We [will or 
shall f] next proceed to treat of Optics. — He [will or shall ?] suc- 

implied, respecting what is it exercised in the different persons ? What, therefore, 
may be conveyed? Give examples. 331. What does will emphasized in the second 
and the third person imply ? 332. In questions, what is the force of shall in the 
several persons? Of will 7 333. What does will sometimes express? 



112 AUXILIAEIES OF THE POTENTIAL. 

ceed, if industry is worth any thing. — We [will or shall ?] have 
left before you arrive. — By the time winter sets in, they [will or 
shall f] have taken their departure. 



LESSON XL VII. 

THE AUXILIARIES MAY, CAN, MUST, NEED, MIGHT, 
COULD, WOULD, SHOULD. 

334. May, can, must, and need, are auxiliaries of the 
present potential. They are thus conjugated: — 

Singular. Plural. 

I may, thou mayst (mayest), he may ; We may, you may, they may. 

I can, thou canst, he can; We can, you can, they can. 

I must, thou must, he must ; We must, you must, they must. 

I need, thou needst (est), he need ; We need, you need, they need. 

335. These auxiliaries followed by have (may have, &c.) indicate the 
perfect potential. 

336. Weed is also used as a principal verb ; as, " We 
all need pardon." 

337. As an auxiliary, need remains unchanged in the third, singular. As 
a principal verb, it becomes needs, or in solemn style needeth ; and another 
verb limiting its meaning is put in the infinitive. Dr. Johnson says, " He 
that can swim, need not despair." Here need is an auxiliary, and need 
despair is in the present potential. Shakspeare says, " I need not to advise 
you further." Here need is a principal verb in the present indicative, mod' 
ified by the infinitive to advise. Both constructions are authorized, but the 
former is the more common. 

338. Might, could, would, and should, are auxiliaries of 
the imperfect potential. They are conjugated thus : — 

Singular. Plural. 

I might, thou mightst (est), he might ; We might, you might, they might. 

I could, thou couldst (est), he could ; "We could, you could, they could. 

I would, thou wouldst (est), he would ; We would, you would, they would. 

I should, thou shouldst (est), he should ; We should, you should, they should. 

334. Of what tense are may, can, must, and need the auxiliaries ? Conjugate 
may ; can ; must ; need. 335. What tense is indicated by these auxiliaries fol- 
lowed by have 7 336. How is need also used ? 337. What difference is there in the 
conjugation of need as a principal verb and as an auxiliary ? Give an example of 
two equivalent constructions with need. 338. Of what tense are might, could, 



WOULD AND SHOULD. 113 

339. These auxiliaries followed by have {might have, &c.) indicate the 
pluperfect potential. 

340. In subjoined clauses, after a verb in the imper- 
fect tense, would and should are used with the same 
difference of meaning for the different persons as will 
and shall (§ 330). Thus :— 

Futurity. — I said I should go. I told you it would not rain. 
Determination. — I said I would go. I told you she should not go. 

341. Would is sometimes used to denote what was habitual ; as, u He 
would sit and read for hours." 

342. Would is sometimes, but very rarely, used as a principal verb. 
Thus, in the Psalms, " Israel would none of me." 

343. Observe that when be, have, do, will, need, and 
would, are combined with a participle or any other part 
of a principal verb, they are auxiliaries. When not so 
combined, they are principal verbs. 

Auxiliaries. — He is amusing the children. Cassar was loved. I do not 
want to be robbed. They have pitied us. Do look. Save her, do. Does 
He not help those whom He will save. Nothing need be said. Who would 
be a slanderer ? 

Principal Verbs. — That story is amusing. Cassar was ambitious. 
Have pity on us. They crossed the river, as they intended to do. Indus- 
try does wonders. He saves those whom He wills to save. A workman 
that needeth not to be ashamed. They would none of my reproof. 

EXERCISE. 

Correct the auxiliaries : — Can I leave the room ? — May thou be 
happy! — Men will not listen, that they might save their sonls. — 
No person needs blush when he has done his best. — He cried out 
in terror that he should drown, nobody should help him. — Can he 
not have started ? — I promised that he would be allowed to return. 
- — Can thou not regulate thine own conduct? — Helen promised 

would, and should the auxiliaries? Conjugate might; could; would; should, 
339. What tense is indicated by these auxiliaries followed by have ? 340. How are 
would and should used in subjoined clauses ? 341. What is would sometimes used 
to denote ? 342. How is would sometimes used ? 343. Which of the auxiliaries 
are also used as principal verbs ? How can it be told whether these words are 
auxiliaries or principal verbs ? Give examples. 



114 



THE VEEB BE. 



that she might write to-morrow. — Thou need not have taken such 
pains with it. — A prize was offered to him who would write the 
best composition. 



LESSON XL VIII. 

THE VERB BE. 

344. The intransitive verb he is conjugated thus : 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense. 



Singular. 

1. I am, 

2. Thou art, 

3. He is; 



Plural. 

1. "We are, 

2. You are, 

3. They are. 



Imperfect Tense. 

1. I was, 1. We were, 

2. Thou wast or wert, 2. You were, 

3. He was; 3. They were. 

Perfect Tense. 

1. I have been, 1. "We have been, 

2. Thou hast been, 2. You have been, 

3. He has been ; 3. They have been. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

1. I had been, 1. We had been, 

2. Thou hadst been, 2. You had been, 

3. He had been ; 3. They had been. 

First Future Tense. 
1. I shall or will be, 1. We shall or will bo, 



2. Thou shalt or wilt be, 
8. He shall or will be ; 



2. You shall or will be, 

3. They shall or will be. 



THE VERB BE. 115 

Second Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will have been, 1. We shall or will have been, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have been, 2. You shall or will have been, 

3. He shall or will have been; 3. They shall or will have been* 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

1. I may, can, must, or need be, 1. We may, can, must, or need be, 

2. Thou mayst, canst,* &c, be, 2. You may, can, must, or need be, 

3. He may, can, must, or need 3. They may, can, must, or need 

be ; be. 

Imperfect Tense. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or 

should be, should be, 

2. Thoumightst, couldst,&c.,be, 2. You might, could, &c, be, 

3. He might, could, &c, be ; 3. They might, could, &c, be. 

Perfect Tense. 

1. I may, can, must, or need 1. We may, can, must, or need 

have been, have been, 

2. Thou mayst, &c, have been, 2. You may, &c, have been, 

3. He may, &c, have been ; 3. They may, &c, have been. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or 

should have been, should have been, 

2. Thou mightst, &c, have been, 2. You might, &c, have been, 

3. He might, &c, have been ; 3. They might, &c, have been. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

1. If I be, 1. If we be, 

2. If thou be, 2. If you be, 

3. If he be; 3. If they be. 

* In reciting, always give all the auxiliaries— Thou mayst, canst , must, (A 
needst be. 



116 EEMARK9 ON THE YEKB BE. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I were, 1. If we were, 

2. If thou were, 2. If you were, 

3. If he were ; 3. If they were. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

1. Be I, 1. Be we, 

2. Be thou or do thou be, 2. Be you or do you be, 

3. Be he ; 3. Be they. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense. To be. Perfect Tense. To have been. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present. Being. Perfect. Been. Compound Perfect Having been, 

345. Remarks. — Besides the forms given above in the present indica* 
tive, we find the following used by old writers: — / be, thou beest, he be ; 
we be, you be, they be. "We be twelve brethren." — Genesis, chap. 42. 
" I think it be thine indeed." — Shakspeare. These forms are obsolete, and 
should not now be used. 

346. Were is sometimes used for would be, and must then be parsed 
as in the potential imperfect ; as, " It were impossible to tell thee all I 
feel." 

347. The conjunction if is sometimes omitted before the pluperfect 
indicative, and the present and imperfect subjunctive. In this case, the 
verb or its auxiliary is placed before the subject; as, "Had Caesar been 
prudent, he would have paused [for if Cwsar had been]? " Be it [if it 
be] a ghost, I care not." "Were all Christians [if all Christians were] in 
earnest, what glorious results would be achieved ! " 

EXEE CISE . 

Parse the nouns, pronouns, articles, adjectives, and verbs : — All 
men are mortal. — We must be cautious. — Had King Richard been 

345. What obsolete form of the present indicative do we find in old writers ? 
8*6. For what is were sometimes used ? How must it then be parsed ? 347. What 
ie Raid with regard to the omission of the conjunction if? 



ACTIVE VOICE OF THE VERB RULE. 117 

a lion, he could not have been braver. — Be we contented. — God 
be gracious unto thee, my son ! — The world will be wiser than it 
has ever been. — If you be mistaken, we shall all be wretched. — 
To be truly happy is the great end of life. — Having been there, I 
am certain this is the way. 



LESSON XLIX. 

CONJUGATION OF A TRANSITIVE VERB IN THE ACTIVE VOICE. 

348. The verb rule, which will serve as an example 
of all transitive verbs, is thus conjugated in the active 
voice : — 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense. 

Singular, Plural. 

1. I rule or do rule, 1. We rule or do rule, 

2. Thou rulest or dost rule, 2. You rule or do rule, 

3. He rules or does rule ; 3. They rule w do rule. 

Imperfect Tense. 

1. I ruled or did rule, 1. We ruled or did rule, 

2. Thou ruledst or didst rule, 2. You ruled or did rule, 

3. He ruled or did rule ; 3. They ruled or did rule. 

Perfect Tense. 

1. I have ruled, 1. We have ruled, 

2. Thou hast ruled, 2. You have ruled, 

3. He has ruled ; 3. They have ruled. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

1. I had ruled, 1. We had ruled, 

2. Thou hadst ruled, 2. You had ruled, 

3. He had ruled ; 3. They had ruled. 

First Future Tense. 

1. I shall or will rule, 1. We shall or will rule, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt rule, 2. You shall or will rule, 
8. He shall or will rule ; 3. They shall or will rule. 



118 ACTIVE YOICE OF THE VERB BULK 

Second Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will have ruled, 1. We shall or will have ruled, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have ruled, 2. You shall or will have ruled, 
3 He shall or will have ruled ; 3. They shall or will have ruled, 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

1. I may, can, must, or need 1. We may, can, must, or need 

rule, rule, 

2. Thou mayst, canst, &c, rule, 2. You may, can, &c, rule, 

3. He may, can, &c, rule ; 3. They may, can, &c., rule. 

Imperfect Tense. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or 

should rule, should rule, 

2. Thou mightst, &c, rule, 2. You might, &c, rule, 

3. He might, &c, rule; 3. They might, &c, rule. 

Perfect Tense. 

1. I may, can, must, erneed have 1. We may, can, must, or need 

ruled, have ruled, 

2. Thou mayst, &c, have ruled, 2. You may, &c, have ruled, 

3. He may, &c., have ruled; 3. They may, &c, have ruled. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or 

should have ruled, should have ruled, 

2. Thou mightst, &c, have ruled, 2. You might, &c, have ruled, 
t$. He might, &c, have ruled ; 3. They might, &c, have ruled, 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

1. If I rule or do rule, 1. If we rule or do rule, 

2. If thou rule or do rule, 2. If you rule or do rule, 

3. If he rule or do rule ; 3. If they rule or do rule. 



REMARKS ON THE VERB. 119 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural, 

1. If I ruled or did rule, 1. If we ruled or did rule, 

2. If thou ruled or did rule, 2. If you ruled or did rule, 

3. If he ruled or did rule ; 3. If they ruled or did rule, 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

1. Rule I, 1. Eule we, 

2. Rule thou or do thou rule, 2. Rule you or do you rule, 

3. Rule he ; 3. Rule they. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense. To rule. Perfect Tense. To have ruled. 

PARTICIPLES. 
Present. Ruling. Perfect. Ruled. Comp. Perfect. Having ruled. 

349. Remarks. — Except in solemn and poetical style, the second per- 
son plural of the verb is used in addressing a single person, in stead of the 
second singular. In conversation we say you rule, not thou rulest, though 
but one person is referred to ; but in prayer or poetry we say thou rulest. 

350. In the third person singular of the present indicative, there is a 
solemn form ending in th ; as, he ruleth. 

351. The compound forms of the present and imperfect indicative, 
containing do and did, are properly used when a negation is expressed or 
emphasis is required ; as, " ' You do not love me.' 1 1 do love you/" " He 
says I did not go, but I did go? — When there is no emphasis or negation, 
the simple form is to be preferred as stronger. "We beseech thee," not 
u we do beseech thee." 

352. To avoid a disagreeable combination of consonants, the termina 
tion st is sometimes omitted by good writers in the second person singular 
of the imperfect indicative. Thus Pollok says, thou conquered, thou came, 
thou noticed, thou lifted. So Pope: — thou who touched; thy word who 
knew no wish. The regular form, however, is more used, and therefore to 
be preferred. 

349. In what number do we commonly use the verb when we address a singlG 
person ? 350. Give the solemn form of the present indicative in the third person. 
351. When is it proper to use the compound forms of the present and imperfect 
Indicative? 352. In what part is st omitted by some writers? Why? Which 



120 PASSIVE VOICE. 

353. In the imperative mood, most grammars give only the second per- 
son. But all three persons are found in standard writers, and may be used 
when occasion requires. First person. " Cursed be I that did so." 
— Shakspeare. " Proceed we therefore." — Pope. Third person. u Thy 
will be done^ — Bible. "Be it known." 

EXERCISE. 

Supply verbs, and parse the nouns, pronouns, and verbs in the 
sentences thus completed : — Strike while the iron — hot. "Whatso- 
ever thy hand findeth to do, — it with thy might. The bittern — 
in desolate places. The day may — when justice will triumph. 
Having thus deceived the enemy, Washington — to Princeton. If 
the climate of Africa — not so fatal, more travellers — there. In 
stead of oppressing his subjects, Nero might greatly have benefited 
them, if he — to — so. A French officer, on visiting the mother 
of Washington, — : " No wonder America has — such a leader, 
since he — such a mother ! " 



LESSON L. 

CONJUGATION OF A TRANSITIVE VERB IN THE 
PASSIVE VOICE. 

354. The various parts of the passive voice are formed 
by combining the perfect participle with the correspond- 
ing parts of the auxiliary he. All transitive verbs are 
conjugated in the passive voice according to the follow- 
ing model : — 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I am ruled, 1. We are ruled, 

2. Thou art ruled, 2. You are ruled, 

3. He is ruled ; 3. They are ruled. 

form is to be preferred ? 353. Give some examples showing that all three persons 
arc found in the imperative mood. 



PASSIVE YOICE OF THE VERB RULE. 12] 

Imperfect Tense, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I was ruled, 1. We were ruled, 

2. Thou wast or wert ruled, 2. You were ruled, 

3. He was ruled ; 3. They were ruled. 

Perfect Tense. 

1. I have been ruled, 1. We have been ruled, 

2. Thou hast been ruled, 2. You have been ruled, 

3. He has been ruled ; 3. They have been ruled. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

1. I had been ruled, 1. We had been ruled, 

2. Thou hadst been ruled, 2. You had been ruled, 

3. He had been ruled ; 3. They had been ruled. 

First Future Tense. 

1. I shall or will be ruled, 1. We shall or will be ruled, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be ruled, 2. You shall or will be ruled, 

3. He shall or will be ruled ; 3. They shall or will be ruled. 

Second Future Tense. 

1. I shall or will have been 1. We shall or will have been 

ruled, ruled, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have been 2. You shall or will have been 

ruled, ruled, 

3. He shall or will have been 3. They shall or will have been 

ruled ; ruled. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 
Present Tense. 

1. I may, can, must, or need 1. We may, can, must, or need be 

be ruled, ruled, 

2. Thou mayst, &c, be ruled, 2. You may, &c, be ruled, 

3. He may, &c., be ruled ; 3. They may, &c, be ruled. 

Imperfect Tense. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or 

should be ruled, should be ruled, 

2. Thou mightst, &c, be ruled, 2. You might, &c, be ruled, 

3. He might, &c, be ruled; 3. They might, &c, be ruled. 

6 



122 PASSIVE VOICE OP THE VEEB BULB. 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may, can, must, or need 1. "We may, can, must^ or need 

have been ruled, have been ruled, 

2. Thou mayst, canst, must, or 2. You may, can, must, or need 
f needst have been ruled, have been ruled, 

3. He may, can, must, or 3. They may, can, must, or need 

need have been ruled ; have been ruled. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or 

should have been ruled, should have been ruled, 

2. Thou mightst, &c, have 2. You might, &c, have been 

been ruled, ruled, 

3. He might, &c., have been 3. They might, &c, have been 

ruled ; ruled. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

1. If I be ruled, 1. If we be ruled, 

2. If thou be ruled, 2. If you be ruled, 

3. If he be ruled ; 3. If they be ruled. 

Imperfect Tense. 

1. If I were ruled, 1. If we were ruled, 

2. If thou were ruled, 2. If you were ruled, 

3. If he were ruled ; 3. If they were ruled. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

1. Be I ruled, 1. Be we ruled, 

2. Be thou or do thou be ruled, 2. Be you or do you be ruled, 
6. Be he ruled ; 3. Be they ruled. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense. To be ruled. Perfect Tense. To have been ruled, 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present. Being ruled. Perfect. Buled. 

Comp. Perfect. Having been ruled. 



REMARKS ON THE VERB. 123 

355. Some verbs, besides the regular present participle passive given 
above, have their participle in ing used with a passive meaning ; as, the 
houses now erecting, a book now publishing in numbers. Parse a participle 
in ing thus used as the present participle passive. 

356. Cautions. — In old writers we sometimes find the perfect of cer- 
tain intransitive verbs formed with am in stead of have, and the pluperfect 
with was in stead of had. Thus : — Winter is [has] come ; they are [have] 
arrived ; when they were [had] gone ; happiness was [had] flown. These 
forms are now rarely used, and should be avoided. Do not take them for 
passive tenses, which they resemble, but parse thus : Is come is an in- 
transitive verb, used for has come; in the indicative mood, perfect 
tense, &c. 

357. We have seen (§ 308) that there are some adjectives identical 
in form with participles. Do not, therefore, confound the verb be followed 
by such an adjective, with a passive compound tense. Observe the differ- 
ence in the following examples : — 

Verb be and adjective. — I am obliged to you. You are mistaken. She 
is accomplished. He is resolved to go. I am inclined to remain. 

Transitive verb in the passive voice. — I am obliged to return. Some- 
times hypocrites are mistaken for pious men. The deed is accomplisJied. 
Water is resolved into its elements. My body is inclined by years. 

358. Change of Construction. — A sentence containing a verb in the 
active voice may often be converted into an equivalent one containing 
a verb in the passive. Thus: — u Caesar invaded Britain." Make three 
changes. 1. Change the active verb invaded to the same part of the pas- 
sive voice, was invaded. 2. Take the object Britain for the subject of the 
passive verb, Britain was invaded. 3. Introduce the preposition by after 
the passive verb with the former subject Ccesar for its object, Britain was 
invaded by Ccesar. 

E X E K C I S E» 

Correct the following sentences (see § 356), and mention the 
mood and tense of each verb : — What is become of your father ? — 
Samuel is grown out of my recollection. — The Jews were de- 



355. How do some verbs have their participle in ing used ? When so used, 
how is this participle to be parsed ? 356. How do we sometimes find the perfect 
of certain intransitive verbs formed? Give examples. What is said of such 
forms ? Show howto parse them. 357. With what is there danger of confounding 
the verb be followed by an adjective? Give examples showing the difference. 
358. Into what may a sentence containing a verb in the active voice often be con* 
verted ? Enumerate the changes to be made. 



124: PROGRESSIVE FORM OF THE VERB. 

parted out of the land. — The strife is ceased.— He was not yet 
descended from Heaven. — Cold weather was already set in. — The 
spectre was vanished. 

Parse the nouns, adjectives, and verbs (see § 357) : — Most per- 
sons are ashamed to confess that they have been imposed upon 
(see § 239). — Demosthenes was bent on defeating King Philip's 
ambitious designs. — We are indebted to Newton for some most 
important discoveries in Optics. — Free countries are generally en- 
lightened. — It is proved that the earth's axis is inclined to the 
plane of its orbit. 

Change these sentences to equivalent ones containing a passive 
verb (see § 358) : — Crocodiles inhabit the Nile. — ¥m. Penn founded 
Philadelphia. — Men have turned steam to great account. — Bur- 
goyne had already invaded New York. — You must conquer all 
evil passions. — This news will surprise our neighbors. — All good 
men should abhor a tyrant. — Wine must have overthrown Alex- 
ander's reason. 



LESSON LI. 

PROGRESSIVE FORM OF THE VERB. 

359. Some verbs denote an action or state, in which, 
from its very nature, continuance is implied ; as, I love, 
I remember. Others affirm an action or state without 
reference to its continuance ; as, I rule, I speak. 

Verbs of the latter class have a distinct form which 
is to be used when the idea of continuance is to be 
prominently conveyed. It is called the Progressive 
Form, and is made by combining the participle in ing 
with the various parts of the auxiliary be, as follows. 
Recite all the persons in both numbers. 

359. As regards continuance, what difference is there in the signification of 
verbs? What verbs have a distinct form to imply continuance? What ia it 
called ? How is it formed ? 



PROGRESSIVE FORM OF THE VERB. 125 

PROGRESSIVE FORM. 

Indicative Mood, 

Present. — I am ruling, thou art ruling, &c. 
Imperfect. — I was ruling, thou wast or wert ruling, &c 
Perfect. — I have been ruling, thou hast been ruling, &c 
Pluperfect. — I had been ruling, thou hadst been ruling, &c. 
First Future. — I shall or will be ruling, thou shalt or wilt, &c 
Second Future. — I shall or will have been ruling, &c. 

Potential Mood. 

Present. — I may, can, must, or need be ruling. 
Imperfect. — I might, could, would, or should be ruling. 
Perfect. — I may, can, must, or need have been ruling. 
Pluperfect. — I might, could, would, or should have been ruling. 

Subjunctive Mood. 
Present. — If I be ruling, if thou be ruling, &c 
Imperfect. — If I were ruling, if thou were ruling, &c. 

Imperative Mood. 
Present. — Be thou ruling or do thou be ruling, &c 

Infinitive Mood. 
Present. — To be ruling. Perfect. — To have been ruling. 

Participles. 
Present. — Puling. Comp. Perfect. — Having been ruling. 

360. Remarks. — Verbs whose simple form denotes continuance, have 
no progressive form. Such expressions as / am loving you, I was remem- 
bering my friends, are not good English. 

361. All the parts of the progressive form given above are used with 
an active signification ; and in the first and second person they are only 
so used. But we have seen (§ 355) that, in the case of some verbs, the 
participle in ing has a passive as well as an active meaning ; and in these 
the third person of the progressive form is also used passively. *' Houses 

360. "What verbs have no progressive form ? 361. "WTiat signification have all 
the parts of the progressive form just given? What different signification has the 



126 REMARKS ON THE PROGRESSIVE FORM. 

are rapidly erecting" " The book is publishing in numbers." " Addison's 
works were reprinting." 

362. In the present and imperfect indicative passive, another progres- 
sive form is used, though it is less elegant than the one given above. It is 
formed by combining the present participle passive with am and was, car- 
ried through their several persons and numbers; as, " Houses are being 
erected." " The will of Heaven was being accomplished" This form it is 
best to avoid. Use the other form in stead, or change the entire expres- 
sion : "Houses are in course of erection." "The will of Heaven was 
undergoing its accomplishment" 

When the progressive form of a verb used with a certain subject is sus- 
ceptible of an active meaning, it must be used only with that meaning. 
Thus we must not say the Christians were persecuting, unless we mean that 
they persecuted others. If we mean they were persecuted themselves, 
in stead of this form or the one mentioned in the last paragraph {the 
Christians were being persecuted), we use some equivalent expression, such 
as the Christians were undergoing persecution. 

363. Parsing. — When a verb is in the progressive 
form, state it in parsing after mentioning the number. 
To determine whether it is in the active or passive voice, 
see whether it represents its subject as acting or acted 
upon. 

I am reading. These things were transacting in 
America. 

Am reading is an intransitive verb, in the indicative mood, present 
tense, first person, singular number, progressive form, and agrees with its 
subject I: — Rule, A verb agrees with its subject in person and number. 

Were transacting is a transitive verb, in the passive voice, indicative 
mood, imperfect tense, third person, plural number, progressive form, and 
agrees, &e. 

EXERCISE. 

Correct the following sentences by changing the verbs from the. 
progressive to the common form : — All men are loving truth. — No 

third person of this form in certain verbs ? Give examples. 362. What other pro- 
gressive form is used in the present and imperfect indicative passive ? What is 
said with respect to this form ? When must the progressive form of a verb be 
used only with an active meaning ? If, in such a case, we wish to convey a passive 
meaning with the idea of continuance, how must it be done ? 363. How is a verb 



NEGATIVE CONJUGATION. 127 

one was esteeming him.— "We shall be seeing what will happen. — 
I can not be disliking her. — We must be remaining till to-morrow. 
— She asked me not to be forgetting her. — If thou were wishing to 
help me, thou couldst easily do it. 

Change the verbs to the corresponding progressive form, and then 
parse them : — The wind blows. — The storm raged. — I will wait for 
you. — He must have dined. — Do you write ? — Efforts are made. — 
The poor must suffer. — I had listened to an opera. — A civil war 
was waged. — A canal was dug. — The criminal is punished. — Did 
he enjoy himself? — James may have talked to my brother. — A re- 
port is circulated. — I shall visit in Washington next week. 



LESSON LII. 

NEGATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE CONJUGATIONS. 

364. Negative Conjugation. — The meaning of a 
verb is made negative by joining to it the adverb not. 

365. In the infinitive mood and the participles, not 
precedes the verb : as, not to rule, not to have ruled ; 
not ruling, not having ruled. So in the passive voice : 
not to he ruled, not to have been ruled; not being ruled, 
not ruled, not having been ruled. 

In the other parts, if the tense is simple, not must be 
placed after the verb ; and, if compound, after the first 
auxiliary ; as, I rule not, I shall not be ruled. 

366. Go through the negative conjugation, forming 
the tenses in order, as follows : — 

Indicative. — Present. I rnle not or do not rule, 

Thou rulest not or dost not rule, &c. 
Imperfect. I ruled not or did not rule. 
Perfect. I have not ruled, &c. 

in the progressive form to be parsed ? How can it be determined whether it is in 
ihe active or passive voice ? Learn the parsing form, 

364 How is the meaning of a verb made negative? 365. What is the position 
of the adverb not, in the infinitive mood and the participles ? What, in the other 
parts ? 366. Go through the active voice of the verb rule, conjugated negatively. 



128 INTERROGATIVE CONJUGATION. 

So in the passive voice : — I am not ruled, I was not ruled, I 
have not been ruled, I had not been ruled, &c. 

So in the progressive form : — I am not ruling, I was not ruling, 
I have not been ruling, I had not been ruling, &c. 

367. Contractions. — In conversation, the auxiliary and not following 
it are often contracted. Hence arise such forms as don't, didn't, havri't, 
han't, hadn't, won't, shan't, mayn't, &c. These contractions are inadmis- 
sible in dignified composition. If they occur in parsing, treat them thus : 
— "Don't laugh." Don't is a contraction for do not. Do laugh is an 
intransitive verb, &c. Not is an adverb. 

368. Interrogative Conjugation. — A verb is said to 
be used interrogatively when a question is asked with it; 
as, "Hulest thou? " "Dost thou ruleV* In this case, the 
subject, in stead of being placed before the verb, is 
placed after it if the tense is simple, and after the first 
auxiliary if the tense is compound. 

369. The indicative and the potential mood only can 
be used interrogatively. Go through the tenses, com- 
mencing thus : — 

Indicative. — Present, Eule I or do I rule? Rulest thou or 
dost thou rule ? &c. 
Imperfect. Ruled I or did I rule ? Ruledst thou 

or didst thou rule ? &c. 
Perfect. Have I ruled ? Hast thou ruled ? &c. 
So in the passive voice : — Am I ruled ? Was I ruled ? &c. 
So in the progressive form : — Am I ruling ? Was I ruling ? &c. 

370. Negative - interrogative Conjugation. — The 
interrogative conjugation is made negative by placing 
the adverb not immediately after the subject. 

371. Go through the tenses, commencing thus : — 

The passive voice. The progressive form. 367. What contractions are frequently 
made in conversation ? What is said of the use of these contractions in compo« 
sition ? Give an example of the mode of parsing them. 368. When is a verb said 
to be used interrogatively ? When it is thus used, where does its subject stand ? 
369. What moods alone are used interrogatively ? Conjugate the active voice of 
the verb rule interrogatively. The passive voice. The progressive form. 370. How 
Is the interrogative conjugation made negative ? 371. Give the active voice of the. 



NEGATIVE-INTERROGATIVE CONJUGATION. 129 

Indicative. — Present. Kule I not or do I not rule ? 

Imperfect. Euled I not or did I not rule ? 
Perfect. Have I not ruled ? &c. 
So in the passive voice : — Am I not ruled ? Was I not ruled ? 
Have I not been ruled? Had I not been ruled? &c. 

So in the progressive form : — Am I not ruling ? "Was I not 
ruling ? Have I not been ruling ? Had I not been ruling ? &c. 

372. The adverb not is sometimes placed before the subject ; as, "Have 
not I entreated thee?" " Did not they insult me?" 

373. The interrogative form of the verb is used, when we ask simply 
for information and are in doubt whether the answer will be yes or no. The 
negative-interrogative form is used when we expect the answer yes. If I 
am uncertain whether you are going to a certain place, I ask, " Are you 
going?" If I think you intend to go or ought to do so, I ask, " Are you 
not going ? " 

374. In the present and imperfect indicative of the above conjugations, 
there are two forms. Of these, the compound forms containing do and did 
are the ones commonly used ; the simple forms appear only in solemn style 
or poetry. 

Common Form. — Do you not know ? Did you hear those loud con- 
tending notes ? Did I not speak to you ? 

Solemn and Poetical Form. — Know ye not? Heard ye those loud 
contending notes ? Spake I not unto thee ? 

EXERCISE. 

Change the verbs successively to the corresponding tense of 
the progressive, negative, interrogative, and negative-interrogative 
form. Thus : — 

" Progressive. — He is smiling. 
Negative. — He does not smile. 
Interrogative. — Does he smile ? 
Negative-interrogative. — Does he not smile ? 
She laughed. You have called him. 

Jane looks well. Lawyers make money. 

Thou hast written. You deceive yourself. 

verb rule, according to the negative-interrogative conjugation. The passive voice. 
The progressive form. 372. Where is the adverb not sometimes placed? 373. When 
is the interrogative form of the verb used, and when the negative-interrogative? 
374. In these conjugations, which is the common form of the present and imperfect 
indicative ? Where alone do the simple forms appear ? Give examples. 
6* 



He smiles. < 



130 THE ROOT OF THE VERB. 

Caesar overran Gaul. He will suffer torture. 

Some birds sing. You had walked rapidly. 

They may wait. He might have watched. 

Thou must go. They would make trouble. 



LESSON LIU. 

VERBS DISTINGUISHED AS REGULAR AND IRREGULAR. 

375. Root of the Verb. — The present infinitive active 
without its sign to, is the Boot of the verb. The first 
person singular of the present indicative, subjunctive, 
and imperative, has the same form as the root ; as, to 
rule , I rule , if I rule, rule I. 

The verb be is the only exception to this rule. It makes I am, not / be T 
in the present indicative, though it forms its present subjunctive and im- 
perative regularly, if I be, be I. 

376. The present active participle is formed by add- 
ing ing to the root, making such changes in the latter 
as may be required by the rules of spelling : as, land, 
landing ; be, J^ing ; rule, ruling ; pin, ^mNing ; permit, 
per?nitTing. 

377. Formation of the Compound Tenses. — The root 
of the verb is combined with auxiliaries in the following 
compound tenses of the active voice : — 

Indicative and Subjunctive Present. — I do rule. 

Indicative and Subjunctive Imperfect. — I did rule. 

Indicative Future. — I shall or will rule, be. 

Potential Present. — I may, can, must, or need rule, be. 

Potential Imperfect. — I might, could, would, or should rule, be. 

Imperative Present. — Do thou rule. 

The other compound tenses of the active voice are 

375. What is the Root of the verb ? What parts of the verb have the same 
form as the root 1 What exception is there to this rule ? 376. How is the present 
active participle formed ? 377. Which of the compound tenses are formed by 
combining the root of the verb with auxiliaries ? How are the other compound 



CHIEF PARTS OF THE VERB. 131 

formed by combining the perfect or present participle 
with auxiliaries ; as, I have ruled, I have been ruling. 

378. Chief Parts of the Verb.— With the root and 
the perfect participle of a verb, then, we can form all its 
compound tenses. If, together with these, we know the 
imperfect indicative (with which, except in the verb be, 
the simple form of the imperfect subjunctive corre- 
sponds) we can conjugate the verb throughout. 

The root, the imperfect indicative, and the perfect 
participle, are therefore called the Chief Parts of the 
verb. 

379. Verbs distinguished as Regular and Irregular. 
— The imperfect indicative and the perfect participle of 
most verbs are formed by adding ed to the root. Thus : 
— Warm, waring, warmly laud, laud^^, laud<^. 

380. When ed is added, changes may be required in the root by the 
rules of spelling (page 20). Thus: — Final e of the root is rejected; as, 
rule, rul-ed, rul-ed. 

When the root is a monosyllable or is accented on the last syllable, its 
final consonant, if preceded by a single vowel, is doubled : as, stir, stinted, 
stinted ; bestir', bestinted, bestinted. 

Final y of the root, if preceded by a consonant, is changed to i ; as, 
ply, pUed, pk'ed. 

381. Yerbs that have but one form for the imperfect 
indicative and perfect participle, made by adding ed to 
the root, are called Regular. Warm, warmed, warmed, 
is a regular verb. 

Yerbs that have more than one form for the imper- 
fect indicative or perfect participle, or that do not add 
ed to the root to form these parts, are called Irregular. 

tenses of the active voice formed ? 378. With what three parts given can we 
conjugate a verb throughout ? What are these three parts called ? 379. How are 
the imperfect indicative and the perfect participle of most verbs formed? 
380. When ed is added, what changes may be required in the root ? 381. WTiat 
verbs are called Regular ? What verbB are Irregular ? Give examples of both. 
882. Learn the parsing form. 



132 IRREGULAR VERBS. 

Awake, awoke or awaked, awoke or awaked,— he, was, 
been, — are irregular verbs. 

382. Parsing. — In parsing a verb, state whether it is 
regular or irregular, and, if it is irregular, mention its 
three chief parts, in the following order : — 

" Warm your hands." Warm is a regular transitive verb, in the active 
voice, imperative mood, &c. 

" He has been imprudent." Has been is an irregular intransitive verb ; 
from be, was, been ; in the indicative mood, perfect tense, &c. 

EXERCISE. 

Write out or spell the three chief parts of the following regular 
verbs, making, when necessary, the changes in the root mentioned in 
§ 380 : — Grant ; heat ; tattoo ; fan ; fawn ; smile ; root ; rot ; 
hop; hope; hoop; row; ply; play; extol; profit; harass; hal- 
loo ; benefit ; eompromit ; hamper ; deter ; occur ; destroy ; 
separate ; bury ; file ; fill ; justify ; dismay ; tremble ; complain ; 
saunter ; journey ; command ; woo ; transfer • hurrah. 



TABLE OF PRIMITIVE IRREGULAR VERBS. 

383. The chief parts of the primitive irregular verbs 
are presented below. 

Derivative and compound verbs follow their primitives, and therefore 
they are not given separately in the Table. Thus overtake and undertake 
form their chief parts like their primitive take : overtake, overtook, over- 
taken; undertake, undertook, undertaken. 

Some verbs, besides their irregular form, have a regular one in ed. 
This is denoted in the Table by the letter R. Recite both forms in the 
order given in the table : — Build, built or builded, built or builded. 

A form in italics, or a regular form represented by an italic R, is not 
now in good use, though once authorized. When there are two forms, 
the preferable one is placed first. 

No mistakes in grammar are more frequent than those connected with 
the parts of irregular verbs. This Table should therefore receive careful 
attention. Each page of verbs with the Exercise at the bottom may con- 
stitute a lesson. After the errors in the Exercise are corrected, the nouns, 
pronouns, adjectives, and verbs may be parsed. 



PRIMITIVE IRREGULAR VERBS. 



133 



Root. 

Abide, 

Arise, 

Awake, 

Be, 

Bear 

(carry), 
Bear 

(bring forth), 



Per/. Part. 
abode. 



Imperf. 
abode, 

arose, arisen, 

awoke, R., awoke, R. 
was, 
bore, 



j bore, ) 

( bare, ) 

( bore, ) 

S X bare, ) 



been, 
borne. 



Beat, 

Begin, 

Behold, 

Belay, 

Bend, 

Bereave, 

Beseech, 

Bet, 

Betide, 

Bid, 

Bind, 

Bite, 

Bleed, 

Blend, 



born. 

\ beaten, 
( beat. 

begun. 

beheld. 
R., belaid, 
bent, R. 
bereft, R. 
besought, R. besought, R. 



beat, 

j began, > 
( begun, ) 
beheld, 
R., belaid, 
bent, R., 
bereft, R., 



bet, R., 
R., betid, 
bade, bid, 
bound, 
bit, 
bled, 
R., blent, 



bet, R. 
R., betid. 
bidden, bid. 
bound, 
bitten, bit. 
bled. 
R., blent. 



Root. 
Blow, 

Break, 

Breed, 

Bring, 

Build, 

Burn, 

Burst, 

Buy, 

Cast, 

Catch, 

Chide, 

Choose, 
Cleave 

(adhere), 
Cleave 

(split), 
Cling, 
Clothe,* 
Come, 
Cost, 
Creep, 
Crow, 



Imperf. 

blew, 
( broke, ) 
( brake, ) 

bred, 

brought, 

built, R., 

R., burnt, 

burst, 

bought, 

cast, 

caught, R, 
j chid, 
( chode, 

chose, 
j R., clove, 
. clave, 

cleft, 
! clove, 

clung, 

R., clad, 

came, 

cost, 

crept, 

crew, R., 



Per/. Part 
blown. 

broken. 

bred, 
brought, 
built, R. 
R., burnt 
burst, 
bought, 
cast. 
,, caught, R. 
chidden, 
chid, 
chosen. 

[ cleaved. 

cleft, 
cloven, R. 
clung. 
R., clad, 
come, 
cost, 
crept, 
crowed. 



Unclothe is regular. 



EXERCISE. 

Correct the errors in the verbs: —Monroe was born to the grave 
on the very day that I was borne. — The games have began. — You 
must do what he has bade you do. — The wind blowed hard. — You 
might have chose something better. — My friends have cloven to 
me. — She was greatly frightened, and her tongue cleft to the roof 
of her mouth. — He dumb to the top of the mountain. — John 
come to the city yesterday. — She has came on business. — He has 
overcame every difficulty. 

Conjugate re-awake ; upbear ; bare (regular) ; underbid ; re- 
build ; underbuy; overcast; mischoose ; overcome. 



134 



PRIMITIVE IRREGULAR VERBS. 



Root. 


Imperf. 


Per/. Part. 


Poot. 


Imperf. 


P&rf. Part 


Cut, 
Dare 
(venture). 


cut, 
r durst, R. 


cut. 
dared. 


Forget, 
Forgive, 


forgot, 
forgave, 


( forgotten, 
( forgot, 
forgiven. 


Deal, 


dealt, P. 


dealt, P. 


Forsake, 


forsook, 


forsaken. 


Dig, 


dug, P., 


dug, P. 


Freeze, 


froze, 


frozen. 


Dive, 


R., dove, 


dived. 


Get, 


got, gat, 


got, gotten. 


Do, 


did, 


done. 


Gild, 


R., gilt, 


R., gilt. 


Draw, 


drew, 


drawn. 


Gird, 


girt, R., 


girt, R. 


Dream, 


R., dreamt, R., dreamt. 


Give, 


gave, 


given. 


Drink, 


drank, 


j drunk, 
( drank. 


Go, 


went, 


gone. 






Grave,* 


graved, 


graven, R. 


Drive, 


drove, 


driven. 


Grindj 


ground, 


ground. 


Dwell, 


dwelt, R. 


, dwelt, R. 


Grow, 


grew, 


grown. 


Eat, 


ate, eat, 


eaten, eat. 


Hang, 


hung, R. 


,f hung, R.f 


Fall, 


fell, 


fallen. 


Have, 


had, 


had. 


Feed, 


fed, 


fed. 


Hear, 


heard, 


heard. 


Feel, 


felt, 


felt. 


Heave, 


R., hove, 


R., hoven. 


Fight, 


fought, 


fought. 


Hew, 


hewed, 


hewn, R. 


Find, 


found, 


found. 


Hide, 


hid, 


hidden, hid. 


Flee, 


fled, 


fled. 


Hit, 


hit, 


hit. 


Fling, 

Fly, 


flung, 
flew, 


flung, 
flown. 


Hold, 


held, 


( held, 
( holden.X 


Forbear, 


forbore, 


forborne. 


Hurt, 


hurt, 


hurt. 



* Engrave is regular. 

t Hung is the preferable form, except when suspension by the neck for the 
purpose of killing is meant, in which case hanged is generally used. The meat 
was hung up ; the murderer was hanged. Overhang takes the irregular forms 
only. X Holden is still used in law language ; as, " The court was holden^ 



EXERCISE. 

Correct the errors in the verbs : — The king dared not sign the 
warrant. — Brown durst Jones to wrestle with him. — Have you 
ever dove in a deep river ? — Who done it ? — "We done our best. — 
He overdrawed his account. — Some drunk too much. — You have 
overdrove this horse ; you driv him too fast. — They fell five trees 
yesterday. — Some evil has befell. — The battle lasted till evening ; 
the enemy fit bravely. — The Nile had overflown its banks. — I had 
forebore pressing my claim. — He may have went to Texas.— It 
was engraven on my heart. — We heared you laugh. — Have you 
hurted yourself? 



PBMTITVE IRKEGTTLAR VEKBS. 



135 



Boot. 


Imperf. 


Per/. Part. 


Root 


Imperf. 


Perf Part. 


Keep, 


kept, 


kept. 


Rap 


) rapt, 
I rapped. 


rapt, R. 


Kneel, 


knelt, R., 


knelt, R. 


(seize), 


Knit, 


knit, R., 


knit, R. 


Read, 


read, 


read. 


Know, 


knew, 


known. 


Reave, 


reft, 


reft. 


Lade (loa 


d),laded, 


laden, R. 


Rend, 


rent, 


rent. 


Lay, 


laid, 


laid. 


Rid, 


rid, 


rid. 


Lead, 


led, 


led. 


Ride, 


rode, 


ridden,n><fe 


Lean, 


R., leant, 


R., leant. 


Ring, 


rung, rang, rung. 


Leave, 


left, 


left. 


Rise, 


rose, 


risen. 


Lend, 


lent, 


lent. 


Rive, 


rived, 


riven, R. 


Let, 


let, 


let. 


Roast, 


roasted, 


R., roast. 


Lie(recline),lay, 


lain. 


Run, 


ran, run, 


run. 


Light, 


R., lit* 


R., lit. 


Saw, 


sawed, 


R., sawn. 


Lose, 


lost, 


lost. 


Say, 


said, 


said. 


Make, 


made, 


made. 


See, 


saw, 


seen. 


Mean, 


meant, R. 


, meant, R. 


Seek, 


sought, 


sought. 


Meet, 


met, 


met. 


Seethe, 


R., sod, 


R., sodden. 


Mow, 


mowed, 


R., mown. 


Sell, 


sold, 


sold. 


Pay, 


paid, 


paid. 


Send, 


sent, 


sent. 


Pen (con- 
fine, 


> pent, R., 


pent, R. 


Set, 
Shake, 


set, 
shook, R., 


set. 
shaken. 


Plead,f 


R., pled, 


R., pled. 


Shape, 


shaped, 


R., shapen. 


Prove,:): 


proved, 


R., proven. 


Shave, 


shaved, 


R., shaven. 


Put, 


put, 


put. 


Shear, 


sheared, 


shorn, R. 


Quit, 


quit, R., 
as an elegant fc 


quit, R. 


Shed, 


shed, 


shed. 


* Obsolete 


>rm. t Imp 


lead is regular. % Disprove is regnltr. 






EXEE 


CISE. 







Correct the errors in the verbs : — I knowed you would lay down 
this afternoon. — Where have you lain my purse ? — My father laid 
down and took a nap. — She may have laid down. — Hereupon he 
pent some verses, for which he was well repayed. — The evidence 
in the case of Robert "White, impled with Godfrey and others, has 
been disproven. — The audience were wrapt with admiration. — He 
rid very fast, and arrived before the bell had rang. — Martha has 
outran all the rest. — I seen him. — I see him do it yesterday. 

Conjugate inlay ; underlet ; overlie ; loose (regular) ; remake ; 
demean (regular) ; overpay ; acquit (regular) ; uprise ; foresee. 



136 



PRIMITIVE IRREGULAR VERBS. 



Boot. 


Imperf. 


Per/. Part 


Root. 


Imperf. 


Per/. Part. 


Shew (sho), shewed, 
Shine, shone, R 


shewn, R. 
, shone, R. 


Speak, 


( spoke, ) 
( spake,* ) 


spoken. 


Shoe, 


shod, 


shod. 


Speed, 


sped, R., 


sped, R. 


Shoot, 


shot, 


shot. 


Spend, 


spent, 


spent. 


Show, 


showed, 


shown, R. 


Spill, 


R., spilt, 


R., spilt. 


Shred, 
Shrink, 


shred, 
C shrunk, 
I shrank, 


shred. 

shrunk, 

shrunken. 


Spin, 
Spit, 


spun, span, spun, 
j spit, spit, 
( spat, spitten. 


Shut, 


shut, 


shut. 


Split, 


split, R., 


split, R. 


Sing, 


sung, sang, sung. . 


Spread, 


spread, 


spread. 


Sink, 
Sit, 


sunk, sank, sunk, 
sat, sat, sitten. 


Spring, 


( sprung, J 
( sprang, ) 


sprung. 


Slay, 


slew, 


slain. 


Stand, 


stood, 


stood. 


Sleep, 


slept, 


slept. 


Stave, 


stove, R., 


stove, R. 


Slide, 


slid, 


j slidden, 
t slid. 


Stay, 
Steal, 


R., staid, 
stole, 


R., staid, 
stolen. 


Sling, 


( slung, 
\ slang, 


slung. 


Stick, 
Sting, 


stuck, 
stung, 


stuck, 
stung. 


Slink, 


i slunk, > 
( slank,) 


slunk. 


Stink, 


( stunk,) 
j stank, | 


stunk. 


Slit, 

Smite, 

Sow, 


slit, R., 

smote, 

sowed, 

* Spake is stU 


slit, R. 
( smitten, 
( smit.f 

R., sown. 


Stride, 
Strike, 


c strode, 
( strid, 

struck, 


stridden, 

strid. 
( struck, 
( stricken. 




used in solemn ai 


id poetical style. 


I-Kare. 






EXEE 


,CISE. 







Correct the errors in the verbs: — Some horses are shoed every 
month. — Have you not often shrank from your duty ? — If she had 
sang louder and spoke more distinctly, she would have been heared 
better. — After the vessel had sank, we set still on the shore. — The 
duke set his horse admirably. — David might have smote Saul as he 
laid asleep. — From morning till night they spinned. — The boat was 
stoven. — King Philip had stole away. — Nobody has ever strewn 
roses in my path. — He must have slinged it into the river. 

Conjugate gainsay; forego; overhear; undersell; missend; 
overshoot ; resow ; understand ; strew (regular) ; misgive. 



PRIMITIVE IRREGULAR VEEBS. 



137 



Root. 


Trnperf. 


Perf. Part. 


Hoot. 




Imperf. 


Perf. Part. 


String, 


strung, 


strung. 


Throw, 




threw, 


thrown. 


Strive, 


strove, 


striven, R. 


Thrust, 




thrust, 


thrust. 


Strow, 
Swear, 


strowed, 
j swore, ) 
( sware, ) 


strown, R. 
sworn. 


Tread, 
Wake, 




trod, 
R., woke, 


j trodden, 
j trod. 
R., woke. 


Sweat, 
Sweep, 


sweat, R., 
swept, 


sweat, R. 
swept. 


Wax 

(grow), 


} 


waxed, 


R., waxen. 


Swell, 


swelled, 


R., swollen. 


Wear, 




wore, 


worn. 


Swim, 


j swum, ) 
( swam, ) 


swum. 


Weave, 
Wed, 




wove, is?., 
R., wed, 


woven, P. 
R., wed. 


Swing, 


(swung,! 
( swang,) 


swung. 


Weep, 
Wet, 




wept, 
wet, R., 


wept, 
wet, R. 


Take, 


took, 


taken. 


Win, 




won, 


won. 


Teach, 
Tear, 


taught, 
tore, 


taught, 
torn. 


Wind 
(twine), 


! 


wound, 


wound. 


Tell, 


told, 


told. 


Work, 




R., wrought, R., wrought. 


Think, 


thought, 


thought. 


Wring, 




wrung, 


wrung. 


Thrive, 


throve, R. 


thriven, R. 


Write, 




wrote, 


written. 



384. The following verbs, whose imperfect indicative and perfect par- 
ticiple are by some made to end in t (as, spelt, past, mixt), are properly 
regular : — 

Smell Bless Distress Snap Pass Mix 

Spell Dress Oppress Wrap Toss Curse 

Ed, after /, p, and s, is generally sounded like t, and thus the irregular 
forms in question have arisen. They are condemned by the best authorities. 

Primitive verbs not found in the above Table are regular. 



EXEKCISE* 

Correct the errors in the verbs : — Several valuable horses were 
hamstringed. — You have forswore yourself. — I have learnt to 
swim, but have never swam more than a few strokes. — You may 
have took pains, but this does not look like it. — She says she has 
tore her dress. — He writ a poem, and after it was wrote throwed 
it into the fire. — He who was curst of men seemed to be blest of 
Heaven. — He tost his head, and wrapt his cloak more closely about 
him. — I am opprest with grief and distrest beyond measure. 

Conjugate unstring; mistake; unteach; bethink; overthrow,' 
unweave; outwork; rewrite; outstrip; misspell; undress. 



138 THE DEFECTIVES OUGHT, BEWARE, WOULD. 

LESSON LIV. 

DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

385. A verb is said to be Defective when some of its 
parts are wanting. The defective verbs are ought, be- 
ware, would, quoth or quod, wit, wis, wot, methinhs, and 
meseems. 

386. Ought appears only in the present and imperfect 
of the indicative and the subjunctive mood. It is con- 
jugated thus : — 



Pres. and Imperf . Ind. 

1. I ought, We ought, 

2. Thou oughtest, You ought, 

3. He ought ; They ought. 



Pres. and Imperf. Sub). 

1. If I ought, If we ought, 

2. If thou ought, If you ought, 

3. If he ought ; If they ought. 



The two tenses, in each mood, have the same form ; to tell which is 
used in a given sentence, look at the other words, and see whether present 
or past time is meant. " I ought [present] to write." "I ought [imper-, 
feet] to have written yesterday." 

387. Ought has no participle. Hence the expression hadn't ought is 
wrong ; correct it to ought not. 

388. Beware, as if compounded of be and ware (for 
wary), is used only in those tenses which in the verb be 
retain be. Thus : — 

Ind. First Fu. — I shall or will ieware ; thou shalt or wilt beware, &c. 
Potential Pres. — I may, can, must, or need beware. 
Potential Imperf. — I might, could, would, or should foware 
Subjunctive Pres. — If I beware ; if thou beware, &c. 
Imperative Pres., 2nd person. — i?eware thou; foware you. 
Infinitive Pres. — To foware. 

389. Would, as a principal verb, is found only in the 
present and imperfect indicative and subjunctive. It 

385. When is a verb said to be Defective? Mention the defective verbs. 
886. In what tenses does ought appear? Go through these tenses. How are they 
to be distinguished in a given sentence ? 387. What expression is condemned, and 
why ? 388. In what tenses only is beware used ? Mention these parts. 389. In 
what parts is the principal verb would found ? Mention the expressions in which 



QUOTE, WIT, METHINKS, MESEEMS. 139 

is rarely used except in the expressions would God, 
would Heaven, would to God, would to Heaven, I would 
that, would that. 

Would God, would Heaven (as in the sentence, "Would God I had 
died for thee, Absalom ! "), mean Oh that it were God's will ! Oh that 
Heaven willed! Here the verb would is in the subjunctive, imperfect, 
third, singular, and agrees respectively with God and Heaven. — Would to 
God and would to Heaven are corrupt forms for would God and would 
Heaven, and should be treated as such in parsing. 

In the expressions / would that and would that, would is equivalent to 
wish, and is found in the indicative, present, first, singular, agreeing with L 

390. Quoth and quod, meaning said, are now obsolete 
except in humorous style. They are used only in the 
imperfect tense, first and third singular, and always 
stand before their subject : " quoth I," " quod he." 

391. Wit, meaning know, is used only in the present 
infinitive, in the common expression to wit, which is 
equivalent to namely. The kindred forms, wis (imper- 
fect, wist) and wot (formerly used as both a present 
and an imperfect), are now obsolete. 

392. Methinks and meseems, meaning it seems to me, 
are in the indicative, present, third, singular. They 
are used only in this part and the third singular of the 
imperfect tense, — methought, meseemed. 

These verbs never admit of a subject ; and, from 
their being used in but one person, they are called 
Unipersonal Yerbs. " He stood, methought, beside 
my bed." " Meseems I see my murdered brother." 

In solemn style methinks becomes methinketh ; and meseems, meseemetlu 

it generally appears. Explain and parse the expressions would God, would Heaven, 
What is said of the expressions would to God, would to Heaven 7 Parse would 
in the expressions / would that, would that. 390. What do quoth and quod mean ? 
To what style do they now belong ? In what tenses are they found ? How do 
they stand ? 391. "What does wit mean ? In what part only is it used ? What is 
said of the kindred forms wis and wot ? 392. What do methinks and meseems 
mean f Where alone are they found ! What are these verbs called, and why ? 



140 PAUSING OF DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

393. Passing. — When a verb is defective, state it 
in parsing, in stead of calling the verb regular or irregu- 
lar. The unipersonals not having any subject, no rule 
can be given for their agreement. 

Met hinks you ought to hew are of such false friends. 

Methinks is a unipersonal intransitive verb, in the indicative mood, 
present tense, third person, singular number ; admits of no subject. 

Ought is a defective intransitive verb, in the indicative mood, present 
tense, second person, plural number, and agrees with its subject you : — 
Rule, A verb agrees with its subject in person and number. 

To Beware is a defective intransitive verb, in the infinitive mood, present 
tense, and limits the meaning of the verb ought : — Rule, A verb in the 
infinitive is used as a subject, or limits the meaning of some other word, 
or stands independently in the sentence. 

EXERCISE. 

Parse the pronouns, adjectives, and verbs : — " Beware of flat- 
terers," quoth my father; "it were better to fall among pick- 
pockets than among them." — Would Heaven all men were hon- 
est! — Thou oughtest to have discovered, meseems, that riches 
can not purchase true friends. — We must beware of the faults of 
the tongue ; to wit, slander ings, false witness, profanity. — Would 
that Hungary had won her freedom. — Methought I was wander- 
ing in Elysium. — If thou ought to improve thy time, improve it. — ■ 
Israel would none of me. 



LESSON LY. 

THE ADVERB. 



394. The Adverb. — The sixth part of speech is the 
Adverb. 

" We saw to-day a very beautiful sunrise." 
In this sentence, the verb saw is modified by to-day, telling when we 

In solemn style, what do methxnks and meseems become ? 393. How is a defective 
verb to be parsed ? Learn the parsing forms. 

394. What is the sixth part of speech ? In the sentence We saw to-day a very 
beautiful sunrise, by what is the verb saw modified ? By what, the adjective beau- 



ADVEKBS. 141 

saw ; and the adjective beautiful is modified by very, telling how beautiful. 
To-day, very, and words of similar force used to modify verbs and adjec- 
tives, are called Adverbs. 

An adverb is likewise used to modify another adverb ; also, a preposi- 
tion ; also, an adjunct, — that is, an expression consisting of a preposition, 
its object, and the words that modify the latter. "It went considerably 
beyond my expectations ; " the adverb considerably modifies the preposi- 
tion beyond. "The Esquimaux live almost exclusively on animal food; " 
the adverb almost modifies the adverb exclusively, while the adverb exclu- 
sively modifies the adjunct on animal food. 

395. An Adverb is a word expressing manner, time, 
place, degree, affirmation, negation, possibility, or 
number, used to modify a verb, adjective, adverb, 
preposition, adjunct, or a whole idea. 

Examples of adverbs, arranged according to their 
meaning, follow : — 

1. Manner. — How? Thus, so, well, ill, together, somehow, anyhow, 
otherwise, lengthwise, slowly, happily, and most other words ending in how, 
wise, and ly. 

2. Time. — When ? Tlien, now, immediately, forthwith, already, for- 
merly, to-day, yesterday, to-morrow, soon, lately, early, daily, seldom, often, 
ever, always, &c. 

3. Place. — Where? Here, there (and most of their compounds, aa 
wherever, herein, thereabouts, &c), whither, hither, thither, whence, hence, 
thence, away, off, far, up, down, aboard, ashore, homewards, and most 
other words ending in wards. 

4. Degree. — Much, little, very, exceedingly, greatly, quite, enough, 
equally, scarcely, nearly, almost. — Adverbs that modify other adverbs or 
adjectives generally express degree. 

5. Affirmation. — Yes, ay, certainly, truly, indeed, doubtless, amen. 

6. Negation. — No, nay, not, nowise, nohow, never. 

7. Possibility. — Perhaps, perchance, maybe, possibly, haply, 

8. Number. — First (which is preferable to firstly), secondly, thirdly, 
&c. ; once, twice, thrice. 

396. Adverbs of Manner. — Adverbs of manner are 

tiful 7 What are to-day and very called? What else besides verbs and adjectives 
is an adverb used to modify ? Give examples. 395. Define an Adverb. Give ex- 
amples of adverbs of manner. Of time. Of place. Of degree. Of affirmation. 
Of negation. Of doubt. Of number. 396. Which of these are the most numerous? 



142 ADVERBS. 

the most numerous. Many of them are formed from 
adjectives by adding the suffix ly, meaning in a man- 
ner. Thus, from rude, rudely r , in a rude manner; 
from simple, simply, in a simple manner. 

397. Observe that words ending in ly, particularly those formed from 
nouns, are not always adverbs. Some are adjectives only ; as, holy, scaly. 
Others are generally adjectives, though sometimes adverbs ; as, the manly 
virtues, kingly sway, godly men, daily prayers, deadly hatred, — he acted 
manly, it occurs daily, &c. 

398. Adverbs formed with the suffix ly, from adjectives already end- 
ing in ly, should be avoided as inharmonious. For godlily, holily, say in 
a godly manner, in a holy manner. 

399. Any word that in a given passage modifies a 
verb, adjective, or adverb, is an adverb, though it may 
usually appear as some other part of speech. Observe 
the adverbs in italics in the following examples : — 

To travel post (commonly a noun) ; — crack (commonly a noun or verb) 
went the mast ; — click goes the spring ; — to drink deep and talk loud (com- 
monly adjectives) ; — 'twas passing (commonly a participle) strange ; — 
exceeding great reward ; — it was but (commonly a conjunction) a fancy. 

400. Words that generally appear as adverbs are 
sometimes used as the names of things, and then be- 
come nouns ; as, " To-morrow is uncertain." " Now 
is the time to repent." " Upwards of twenty were 
hurt." 

401. Words that generally appear as adverbs are 
sometimes used to qualify the meaning of nouns, and 
then become adjectives ; as, an only son, our home- 
ward journey. 

How are many adverb6 of manner formed ? 397. As what other part of speech do 
words ending in ly sometimes appear ? Give examples. 398. What adverbs of 
manner should be avoided as inharmonious ? 399. Give examples showing how a 
word that usually appears as some other part of speech may be used as an adverb. 
400. What part of speech do words that generally appear as adverbs sometimes 
become? 401. For what are words that generally appear as adverbs sometimes 



ADVERBS. 143 

402. Caution. — Adverbs must be carefully distin- 
guished from adjectives. To tell them apart, see in 
each case to what the word in question relates. If it 
relates to a noun, it is an adjective ; but, if it relates 
to a verb, adjective, adverb, preposition, adjunct, or 
the whole idea, it is an adverb. 

If I say u a loud noise," loud relates to the noun noise, and is there- 
fore an adjective. But, if I say " speak loud," loud relates to the verb 
speak, and is therefore an adverb. So in the following examples : — 

Adjectives. — An upward flight; cleanly habits; the above rules; the 
first fruits; Sarah is well; the very man himself; he will come to-morrow 
morning; a far country; a daily paper; no mercy. 

Adverbs. — To fly upward; to live cleanly, look above; he spoke 
first ; Sarah reads well ; very sour ; very handsomely ; he will come to- 
morrow; to travel far; it happens daily ; no longer. 

EXEECISEt 

Insert adverbs of manner : Time flies — . How — and — Adelaide 
studies ! Your canary warbles — . The trees are — loaded with 
fruit, and pay us — for our labor. Marlborough — addressed his 
men, and then — led them against the foe. The sleigh-bells are 
ringing — . No poet has written more — than Milton. 

Insert adverbs of time or 'place : — and — did Garibaldi go ? 
Impostors are to be found — . My mocking-bird has flown — ; 
will you get me another — ? — tell the truth. Earthquakes — 
occur in England. Franklin pondered the matter — , walking — 
and — with his arms folded. Books are — much better printed 
than they — were. 

Form an adverb from each of the following adjectives, and spell 
it : — Eude ; manful ; obstinate ; general ; vicious ; liberal ; busy ; 
ancient ; natural ; real ; sure ; true {this word and the next four 
reject final e before the suffix ly, though it begins with a consonant) ; 
untrue ; due ; undue ; whole ; feeble (see Rule III, p. 20) ; noble ; 
amiable ; terrible ; agreeable ; inseparable ; passable ; irresistible ; 

•used ? What do they then become ? Give examples. 402. From what must ad- 
verbs he carefully distinguished ? How may adjectives and adverbs be told apart! 
Illustrate this. Give other examples showing the difference between adjectives 
and adverbs. 



144: ADVERBS AND ADJECTIVES. 

vile (here le is not preceded oy a consonant) ; stale ; sole ; pale ; 
servile ; hearty (see Rule YL, p. 21) ; haughty ; pretty ; handy ; 
dainty ; easy ; coy (here a vowel precedes final y) ; gay. 



LESSON LVI. 

ADVERBS (CONTINUED). 

403. Adjectives and Adverbs to be distinguished in 
Use. — We have seen in § 401 that some words may be 
used as both adjectives and adverbs. There are gen- 
erally, however, distinct forms for these two parts of 
speech, and in that case one must not be used for the 
other. 

A soon answer ; the now governor. These expressions are wrong, be- 
cause the adverb soon is joined to the noun answer, and the adverb now 
to the noun governor. Substitute the adjectives speedy and present : a 
speedy answer ; the present governor. 

Lead is melted easier than iron. This tea is uncommon good. These 
sentences are wrong, because the adjective easier is joined to the verb is 
melted, and the adjective uncommon to the adjective good. Substitute the 
corresponding adverbs : — Lead is melted more easily than iron. This tea 
is uncommonly good. 

404. The verbs look, seem, appear, feel, taste, smell, 
and sound, when a quality of the subject is to be ex- 
pressed, should be followed by an adjective relating to 
the subject, and not by an adverb ; as, " The garden 
looks handsome [not handsomely]" " Roses smell sweet 
[not sweetly]" 

405. Conjunctive Adverbs. — "Wait till I come." 

403. What rule is laid down, when there are distinct forms for an adjective and 
the corresponding adverb ? Give examples of the violation of this rule, and point 
out the errors. 404. Give and illustrate the rule relating to the verbs look, seem, &c. 
405. What is the force of till in the sentence Wait till I come ? What are words 
that simply connect called ? What are adverbs that connect called ? What words 
are most frequently used as conjunctive adverbs ? Illustrate their use in sentences. 



REMARKS ON ADVERBS. 145 

Here the adverb till, besides modifying the verb come, 
connects two parts of the sentence, — wait and 1 come. 
Words that connect simply, are called Conjunctions ; 
adverbs that connect, are called Conjunctive Adverbs. 
The words most frequently used as conjunctive ad- 
verbs are why, how, when, where, wherefore, therefore, 
after, before, till. 

Examples of Conjunctive Adverbs. — I do not know why I was sent, 
how I can cross the river, where I am to go, or when I must return. — Man 
has reason ; therefore he is not a brute. — Was Polk president before or 
after you were born ? 

406. Remarks. — We can generally express the meaning of an adverb 
with two or more other words. Thus : — They called daily [every day]. 
Hence [from this~\ it follows. Thrice [three times'] I warned him. He 
answered briefly [in a brief manner]. 

Two or more words, therefore, taken together, sometimes convey a 
single adverbial idea. The words in question may lose their individual 
force, as in by and by (presently), on high (above), as yet (hitherto) ; in 
such cases, they should be parsed together, as a Complex Adverb. If they 
retain their individual force, they must be parsed separately. In partic- 
ular, in vain, at present, at least, are combinations of a preposition and an 
adjective relating to a noun understood ; — in a particular manner, in a 
vain manner, at the present time, at the least estimate. At length, at once, 
in fine, on the whole, are combinations of a preposition and a noun. 

407. Inside-out, upside-down, topsy-turvy, should be written with the 
hyphen and parsed as adverbs. Red-hot, bright-yellow, stone-blind, &c, 
should also be written with the hyphen. The compound words thus 
formed, are adjectives. If the hyphen is omitted, red, bright, and stone 
modify the several adjectives, and are therefore adverbs. 

408. The adverb there generally means in that place. Sometimes, 
however, it is used merely to introduce a sentence ; in which case the verb 
precedes its subject. " There was a man sent from God, whose name was 
John." 

406. How can we generally express the meaning of an adverb ? If the words thus 
taken together lose their individual force, how should they be parsed ? How, if 
they retain their individual force? Explain the expressions in particular, in 
vain, &c. Explain the expressions at length, at once, Sec. 407. How should inside- 
out, upside-down, topsy-turvy be written and parsed ? What is said of red-hot, 
bright-yellow, stone-blind, &c . ? 408. What does there generally mean ? For what 

7 



14:6 EXERCISE ON ADVERBS. 

409. Where, here, and there, implying rest or motion in, are used in 
familiar style for whither, hither, and thither, implying motion towards; as, 
I came here, he marched there. 

410. Whence, hence, thence, henceforth, and thence- 
forth, imply motion from. The word from, therefore,- 
sometimes used before them, is unnecessary. If it is 
allowed to stand [as, From whence came ye ?], from is 
a preposition, and whence, hence, &c, after it are nouns. 

411. Say seldom if ever or seldom or never, not seldom or ever. "Sel- 
dom or never has so great a mind as Newton's appeared ; seldom, if ever, 
will so great a mind appear again." 

EXERCISE. 

Select the adverbs, and tell what they express : — Few indeed, nay 
we may say none, are perfectly happy here. — Even the wisest 
man may perchance be deceived. — You have not studied quite 
enough to-day. — Always think twice before you speak once. — 
He who lies abed late in the morning loses far the best part of the 
day. — Hope on, hope ever. 

Tell what part of speech each word in italics is: — She went 
splash, splash, right through the mud. — Kising early, I set out — 
Early piety is pleasing to the Lord. — Columbus sailed west. — The 
wind is west. — The wind is from the west. — He drank too much. — I 
wondered much to see the off horse so lively. — We drove off. — To- 
morrow may never come. — Since then he has had money enough. 
— She conducted affairs skilfully enough. — Do the wicked ever 
think of a hereafter t — Hereafter we will live apart. 

Correct, and give the reasons : — Never answer surlily (§ 398). — 
We should try to live godlily. — I like to see persons move about 
livelily. — The seldom rainbow (§ 403) paints the sky. — The once 
king became a beggar. — My heretofore life has been full of errors. 
— The moon looks very brightly. — Your flute sounds sweetly. — 
They rise successive. — Do not think too high of yourself. — How 
foolish William behaved ! — He spoke briefer than I supposed he 
would. — Wellington was seldom or ever defeated in battle. 

purpose is it sometimes used ? 409. For what words are where, here, and there used 
in familiar style? 410. What is said of the use of from hefore whence, hencs 
thence, &e. ? 411. What should we say in stead of seldom or ever 7 



REGULAR AND IRREGULAR COMPARISON, 147 

LESSON LVII. 

COMPARISON AND CONSTRUCTION OF ADVERBS. 

412. Comparison of Adverbs. — Adverbs are inde- 
clinable ; but a few, of one or two syllables, are com- 
pared, like adjectives. 

413. The comparative degree is regularly formed by 
adding er to the positive ; and the superlative, by adding 
est. Thus : — 



Pos. 


Comp. 


Sup. 


Pos. 


Comp. 


Sup. 


Late, 


later, 


latest. 


Early, 


earlier, 


earliest. 


Fast, 


faster, 


fastest. 


Often, 


oftener, 


oftenest 



414. Old writers compare some of the adverbs ending in ly. Milton 
uses the words plainlier, rightlier, firmlier ; and in Shakspeare we even 
find easiliest. Such forms are now out of use ; we say more plainly, more 
rightly, more firmly, most easily. 

415. The following adverbs are irregular in their 
comparison : — 



Pos. 


Comp. 


Sup. 


Pos. 


Comp. 


Sup. 


Badly, ill, 


worse, 


worst. 


Much, 


more, 


most. 


Well, 


better, 


best. 


Far, 


farther, 


farthest. 


Little, 


less, 


least. 


Forth, 


further, 


furthest. 



416. More is the adverb used to give the force of the comparative 
degree, and most to give the force of the superlative, to adjectives that can 
not be compared. These words may be used with the same force before 
many adverbs, particularly those of manner; as, more gracefully, most 
gracefully ; more frequently, most frequently. An adverb, however, is not 
said to be compared, unless it takes er and est, or changes its form as in 
the above list of irregulars. 



412. How are some adverbs varied ? 413. How are the comparative and the 
superlative degree regularly formed ? Compare some examples. 414. What ad- 
verbs are compared by old writers ? What does Milton use ? What do we new 
use in stead of these forms ? 415. Name and compare the adverbs that are irregu- 
lar in their comparison. 416. For what are more and most used ? To what be- 
sides adjectives may they be joined ? When only is an adverb s»id to be com- 



148 CONSTRUCTION OF ADVERBS. 

417. Construction of Adverbs. — An adverb will 
generally be found to modify the meaning of a verb, an 
adjective, or another adverb. 

418. The word modified by an adverb may be found by asking a ques- 
tion with what. Thus: — "Is that sum hard? Yes; very." Question. 
Very what ? Answer. Very hard. The adverb very relates to the adjec- 
tive hard understood. 

As we have just seen, the word that an adverb modifies may be under- 
stood. Other examples follow : — " Up and on them, my gallant boys [that 
is, get up and fall on them] ! " "Away to the ship, my men [that is, go 
away] ! " Sometimes in lively style an adverb is joined to an auxiliary 
expressed, while the root of the verb is understood; as, "I'll thence to 
Florence [that is, I'll go thence]." 

419. Sometimes an adverb modifies an idea conveyed 
by the whole or part of a sentence. In that case, as it 
bears no grammatical relation to any particular word, 
we say that it is used independently. The adverbs 
oftenest used independently are as follows : — 

1. Yes and no, used in answering questions ; and amen, at the end of 
prayers. 

2. Forth, in the common expression and so forth. Here the adverb so 
modifies the adverb forth, but forth is used independently. 

3. Consequently, therefore, and then, implying inference. " Lignum 
vitae, therefore, will sink in water." 

4. First, secondly, thirdly, &c, introducing successive particulars. 

5. Why and well, used simply to introduce a sentence. " Why, I for- 
got. " " Well, he is happy at last." 

420. Rule XV. — An adverb relates to the word or 
words whose meaning it modifies, or stands independ- 
ently in the sentence. 

421. Parsing. — To parse an adverb, compare it and 

pared ? 417. What will an adverb generally be found to modify ? 418. How may 
the word modified by an adverb be found ? Illustrate this. G-ive other examples 
showing that the modified word may be understood. 419. When is an adverb 
said to be used independently ? Mention the adverbs oftenest used independently, 
and the circumstances under which they are so used. 420. Recite Rule XV. 
421. How is an adverb parsed ? Learn the forms. 



PARSING OF ADVERBS. 149 

state its degree, if it can be compared ; tell what it re- 
lates to or state that it is used independently ; if a con- 
junctive adverb, tell what it connects and what it 
relates to ; finally, give Rule XV. 

By and by we shall travel still more rapidly. 

By and by is a complex adverb, and relates to the verb shall travel :— ^ 
Rule, An adverb relates to the word or words whose meaning it modifies, 
or stands independently in the sentence. 

Still is an adverb, and relates to the adverb more : — Rule, An adverb, 
&c. 

More is an adverb ; much, more, most ; in the comparative degree, and 
relates to the adverb rapidly : — Rule, An adverb, &c. 

Rapidly is an adverb, and relates to the verb shall travel : — Rule, An 
adverb, &c. 

Welly Til off to JParis, after you leave. 

Well is an adverb, used independently : — Rule, an adverb, &c. 

Off is an adverb, and relates to the verb will go (the root go being 
understood) : — Rule, An adverb, &c. 

After is a conjunctive adverb ; it connects Pll off to Paris and you leave, 
and relates to the verb leave : — Rule, An adverb, &c. 

EXE ECISE. 

Parse the nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs : — In 
1545,* an Indian, climbing an exceedingly steep mountain in Bo- 
livia, to support himself the better, took hold of a bush that 
happened to be growing just abovet where he stood. The bush 
immediately came up in his hand ; and its root, strangely enough, 
was covered with a glittering dust. This turned out to be silver 
ore, and thus were accidentally discovered the celebrated silver 
mines of Potosi, which rank among the most valuable mineral 
deposits hitherto known. — Tunis now stands not far from where 
ancient Carthage formerly stood. — Just now there are no wars or 
rumors of wars anywhere. — Seldom, if ever, has a hyena been 
tamed. — On, Stanley, on. 

* A noun, being the name of a year. 

t A preposition, not an adverb, its object place being understood '—just abov6 
tthe place] where he stood. 



150 PREPOSITION AND ADJUNCT. 

LESSON LVIII. 

THE PREPOSITION 

422. The Preposition. — The seventh part of speech 
is the Preposition. 

" Washington marched to Princeton." 
The relation between Washington's marching and Princeton is here 
expressed by to; not from Princeton, nor round Princeton, nor past 
Princeton, but to Princeton. The words in italics express each a different 
relation, and are called Prepositions. 

423. That term of the relation which naturally follows the preposition, 
is called its Object; and, if it is a noun, it is in the objective case, accord- 
ing to Rule IV. In the above example, Princeton is the object of the 
preposition to, and is in the objective case. 

A preposition may also have for its object a pronoun in the objective, 
a verb in the infinitive, or a participle ; as, " There is an air of mystery 
about him." " The concert was about to commence? " The concert was 
about commencing? 

424. A Preposition is a word used to show the relation 
that a substantive, infinitive, or participle bears to some 
other term in the sentence. 

425. An Adjunct is an expression consisting of a 
preposition, its object, and the words that modify the lat- 
ter. "Wellington was about commencing important and 
extensive operations / " the words in italics constitute an 
adjunct. 

426. List of Prepositions. — The following list em- 
braces all the prepositions in common use : — 



422. What is the seventh part of speech ? In the sentence Washington 
marched to Princeton, what does the word to express ? What other words might 
be used, to indicate different relations? What are these words called ? 423. What 
is the Object of a preposition ? What may a preposition have for ite object ? 
424. Define a Preposition. 426. Define an Adjunct. 426. Give as many prepo- 



LIST OF PREPOSITIONS. 



151 



*l 


at, 


concerning, 


off, 


to, 


abaft, 


athwart, 


despite, 


on, 


touching, 


aboard, 


bating, 


down, 


over, 


toward, 


about, 


before, 


during, 


overthwart, 


towards, 


above, 


behind, 


ere, 


past, 


under, 


across, 


below, 


except, 


pending, 


underneath, 


after, 


beneath, 


excepting, 


regarding, 


until, 


against, 


beside, 


for, 


respecting, 


unto, 


along, 


besides, 


from, 


round, 


up, 


amid, 


between, 


in, 


save, 


upon, 


amidst, 


betwixt, 


into, 


since, 


versus, 


among, 


beyond, 


minus, 


through, 


with, 


amongst, 


but, 


notwithstanding, throughout, 


within, 


around, 


by, 


of, 


till, 


without. 



427. Caution. — The words in the above list are not 
prepositions in every sentence, but only when they ex- 
press some relation and have an object. 

Thus : — " A polite man would not have burst out a laughing." The first 
a has no object, but limits the meaning of the noun man ; it is therefore 
an article. The second a has the participle laughing for its object, and is 
a preposition. 

428. Many of the words in the above list of preposi- 
tions, particularly those that denote place or direction, 
are also used as adverbs. 

If I say, "Look above this earth," above has the noun earth for its 
object, and is a preposition. But if I say, " Look above," above has no 
object; it modifies the verb look, and is therefore an adverb. 

429. Some of the words in the list of prepositions 
are also used as conjunctions, — that is, to connect words 
or sentences. 

If I say, " All but me remained," but is used with the force of except, has 
me for its object, and is a preposition. If I say, " But Brutus is an honor- 
able man," but is used without an object, as a connective, and it is there. 



eitions of the list as you can remember. 427. When only are the words presented 
in the list prepositions ? Give an example of the use of a as different parts of 
speech. 428. As what part of speech do many of the words in the list of prepo- 
sitions appear ? Illustrate this. 429. As what other part of speech do they also 



152 COMPLEX PREPOSITIONS. 

fore a conjunction. On the other hand, but, when equivalent to only, is 
an adverb ; as, " B%t [only] seven metals were known to the ancients." 
Observe the difference in the following examples: — 

Prepositions. — Charlemagne flourished about the year 800. — Mercury 
freezes at 39 degrees below zero. — Throw it over the fence. — Notwithstand- 
ing his merits, Schuyler was superseded. — Si?ice the invention of printing, 
books have multiplied. — Go to your home, and lay your throbbing head on 
your pillow. 

Adverbs. — Horsemen were seen riding about. — Man wants but little 
here below. — Throw it over. — Printing was invented, and books have mul- 
tiplied ever since. — There was now no home for Roger Williams to go to y 
no pillow for him to lay his head on. 

Conjunctions. — Oil is lighter than water, for it floats on water. — Not- 
withstanding he was superseded, Schuyler did all he could for his country. 
— Since you suspect me, I have nothing to say. 

430. Complex Prepositions. — Two prepositions are 
sometimes used to express a compound relation. In 
that case, take them together in parsing, and call them 
a Complex Preposition. " The Germans came from 
beyond the Rhine ; " from beyond is a complex prepo- 
sition, showing the relation between came and Rhine. 

From unites with various other prepositions, to form a complex prepo- 
sition; BSjfrom aboard, from above, from within, &c. Besides these, we 
have according to, contrary to, as to, as for, because of, instead of, off of 
out of, over against, &c. 

EXERCISE. 

Supply prepositions, and tell the object of each ; parse the ad" 
verbs : Elizabeth, daughter — Henry VIII. , was born — Green- 
wich Palace, not far — London ; she succeeded — the throne — * 
the year 1558. — her faults as a woman, but one opinion is en- 
tertained — her as a queen ; few British sovereigns — or — ■ her 
time have displayed greater ability. The Danube flows — Austria 
and Turkey, and empties — the Black Sea; it has several large 
cities — its banks. Do your duty — fear. As we sailed — the 

appear ? Give an example. Give an example of the use of the same word in dif- 
ferent sentences as preposition and adverb ; as preposition and conjunction. 
430. What is a Complex Preposition t What preposition enters into a number of 
complex prepositions ? Give some examples into whichfrom does not enter. 



PLACE OF THE PKEPOSITION. 153 

island — sunset, I saw a coral reef extending — the east, just — 
the surface of the sea. "Wearily we plodded — sharp rocks and — 
pathless solitudes. 



LESSON LIX. 

PREPOSITIONS (CONTINUED). 

431. Position. — A preposition generally stands be- 
fore its object. The word itself, pre-position, means a 
placing before. 

432. The relatives that and as, however, always precede the preposi- 
tion that governs them; as, "These doctrines were held by those that I 
have spoken of [or, such as I have spoken of]. 11 

In familiar style, the other relatives also, as well as the interrogatives, 
precede the governing preposition ; as, " Mr. Hall, whom I called on about 
your business, will attend to it to-day ." " Wliat do you allude to/ Wliom 
do you speak of? " 

433. In some current phrases and in poetry, we occasionally find a 
noun preceding the preposition that governs it ; as, all the world over ; 
my efforts to the contrary notwithstanding ; the churchyard's quiet sods 
beneath. 

434. Teems of the Relation. — When the terms of 
the relation stand immediately before and after the 
preposition, they are seen at once : when not, to find 
the former term, ask a question with what before the 
preposition; to find the latter term, ask a question 
with what after it. The answers to these questions will 
be the terms of the relation. 

Find the terms between which for shows the relation, in the following 
sentence : " For these purse-proud upstarts, Virtue herself, unless adorned 
with diamonds, would possess no charms." Question. What for these 

431. How does a preposition generally stand? What is the meaning of the 
word pre-position 7 432. What exception is there to the rule just laid down ? In 
familiar style, what words may precede the governing preposition ? 433. What 
other exception is noted ? 434. When are the terms between which a preposition 
ehows the relation seen at once ? When this is not the case, how may the terms 



154 TERMS OF THE RELATION. 

purse-proud upstarts? Answer. Would possess ; this is the former term 
of the relation. — Would possess for what $ Answer. For (these) upstarts; 
upstarts is the latter term of the relation. 

435. The former term of the relation is sometimes understood ; as, 
" [Looking] on the whole, I prefer spring." 

436. The latter term of the relation is sometimes understood; as, 
" Samson is the strongest man [that] we read of in history." 

43 1. The preposition itself is sometimes understood; as, "Throw [to] 
the dog a bone." " He was like [to] his father." " Germantown is near 
[to] Philadelphia." 

438. "When two relations subsist between the terms, 
two prepositions connected by a conjunction and having 
a common object may be used. 

Thus : " Collector of taxes in and for the county of Westchester." In 
shows one relation between collector and county, and for another ; county 
is in the objective case, governed by the prepositions in and for. 

439. When the relation extends to several things, a 
preposition may have several objects, as in the follow- 
ing sentence : — " Few can form any idea of the labors, 
trials, and disappointments, that fall to the teacher's lot." 

440. A preposition with its object often follows an 
intransitive verb ; as, " We can not account for some 
things." 

In some cases of this kind, the verb and preposition taken together 
come to be regarded as a transitive verb, and as such admit of a passive 
form; thus, "Some things can not be accounted for." Here for is no 
longer a preposition, for it has no object, but is part of the transitive verb 
can be accounted for. 

In some cases a preposition is thus combined with an intransitive verb 
without making it transitive; as, " Glory is worth dying for." Dying for 
is the present participle of an intransitive verb. — Sometimes a preposition 

of the relation be found ? Illustrate this. 435. Give a sentence showing that the 
former term is sometimes understood. 436. In like manner illustrate the omission 
of the latter term. 437. Finally, what is sometimes understood ? 438. When two 
relations subsist between the terms, what may be used? Give an example, 
439. When may a preposition have several objects ? 440. What does a preposition 
with its object often follow ? Show how the verb and preposition are sometimes 
thrown into the passive form Give an example in which the verb is not made 



PARSING OF PREPOSITIONS. 155 

is combined in this way with a transitive verb in the active voice ; as, 
" I have more time than I know what to do with." To do with is a trans- 
itive verb, governing the interrogative pronoun what in the objective case. 

441. In like manner, the prepositions for and of enter into certain 
compound adjectives; as, uncared-for, unsought-for, unheard-of un- 
thought-of Connect the parts of such compounds with the hyphen, and 
parse as common adjectives. 

442. To in the infinitive mood is not a preposition, but part of the verb. 
In parsing, it must be taken with the rest of the verb, as shown in § 297. 

44:3. Rule XVI. — A preposition shows the relation 
that a substantive, infinitive, or participle, bears to 
some other word or words in the sentence. 

444. Parsing. — To parse a preposition, mention the 
terms between which it shows the relation, and give 
Rule XVI. Thus:— 

Out of regard for a friend I had teen so much at- 
tached to ^ I overlooked his reflections on my veracity 
and honor. 

Out of is a complex preposition, and shows the relation between the 
noun regard, which is its object, and the verb overlooked: — Rule, A prepo- 
sition shows the relation that a substantive, infinitive, or participle, bears 
to some other word or words in the sentence. 

For is a preposition, and shows the relation between the noun friend, 
which is its object, and the noun regard: — Rule, A preposition, &c. 

To is a preposition, and shows the relation between the relative pro- 
noun that understood, which is its object, and the adjective attached : — 
Rule, A preposition, &c. 

On is a preposition, and shows the relation between the nouns veracity 
and honor, which are its objects, and the noun refections : — Rule, A prep- 
osition, &c. 

JE 2L xu K CI S -E • 

Parse the adjectives, verbs, adverbs, and prepositions : — The 
times are sadly out of joint. — " Early to bed and early to rise," 

transitive. With what kind of a verb is a preposition sometimes thus combined ? 

441. How are some compound adjectives formed ? How should they be written ? 

442. How is to in the infinitive mood to be looked upon and parsed ? 443. Recite 
Rule XVI. 444. How is a preposition parsed % Learn the form. 



156 



CONJUNCTIONS. 



is a maxim which it would be well for all persons without excep- 
tion to act upon. — Stephen fell off the bridge into the river, but 
succeeded in getting out safe, minus his hat. — Before the time 
of Gutenberg, books were written in stead of being printed. — The 
long wished-for day at length arrived, and was hailed on all sides 
with acclamations. — According to Cicero, there was a time when 
men wandered everywhere through the fields after the manner 
of beasts. — Notwithstanding your vaunted strength, to go a fish- 
ing and a hunting on the same day would be too much for you. 



LESSON LX. 



THE CONJUNCTION 

445. The Conjunction. — The eighth part of speech 
is the Conjunction. 

"Yet, if I mistake not, Virgil and Horace were Romans." 
In this sentence, and is used to connect the words Virgil and Horace. 
If is used to connect the parts of the sentence, I mistake not and Virgil 
and Horace were Romans. Yet is used to connect the whole sentence 
with something going before. And, if, yet, and other words used as con- 
nectives, are called Conjunctions. The word conjunction means a joining 
together. 

446. A Conjunction is a word used to connect words, 
sentences, or parts of a sentence. 

447. List of Conjunctions. — The following list em- 
braces all the conjunctions in common use : — 



although, 


either, 


neither, 


save, 


then, 


and, 


even, 


nevertheless, 


seeing, 


though, 


as, 


except, 


nor, 


since, 


unless, 


because, 


for, 


notwithstanding, 


so, 


yet, 


both, 


if, 


or, 


than, 


whereas, 


but, 


lest, 


provided, 


that, 


whether. 



445. What is the eighth part of speech ? Repeat the sentence presented at the 
commencement of the lesson. In this sentence, what is and used for ? If? Yet J 
What are such words called ? What does the word conjunction mean ? 446. De- 
fine a Conjunction. 447. Mention as many of the conjunctions in the list as you 



REMARKS ON CONJUNCTIONS. 15? 

Many of the words in the above list are also used as other parts of 
speech. They are conjunctions only when they connect words, sentences, 
or parts of a sentence. 

448. Both, either, neither, and that, standing for nouns, are adjective 
pronouns. Used with nouns, to limit their meaning, they are pronom* 
inal adjectives. That is a relative pronoun, when equivalent to who or 
which. 

449. Even, then, and now, are generally adverbs. But even is a con- 
junction, when it introduces a repeated word ; as, " I, even I." Then is a 
conjunction, when it is used as the correlative of if. Now is a con- 
junction, when it has no reference to time; as, " Now Barabbas was a 
robber. " 

450. Except and without are conjunctions only when used (though 
not elegantly) for unless. But, for, and since, as we have seen in § 429, 
are sometimes adverbs and prepositions. Provided and seeing are fre- 
quently participles. So is a conjunction, only when equivalent to pro- 
vided; "So you leave me enough, you may take what you choose." Or 
in the expression or ever, meaning before, is an adverb ; "or ever the silver 
cord be loosed." 

451. As, representing a noun, after such, same, as many, so many, as 
much, and so much, has been already mentioned (§ 152) as a relative pro- 
noun. When as denotes degree and modifies an adjective or adverb (as 
graceful, as gracefully), it is an adverb. When as denotes manner and at 
the same time connects, it is a conjunctive adverb. When it connects 
simply, it is a conjunction. 

452. Observe the following examples : — Both (conj.) Alexander and 
Caesar were great conquerors, and both (adj. pro.) met with an untimely 
end. — I will not go without (prep.) you. — I will not go without (conj.) you 
go. — I would advise you not to become either (conj.) a painter or a sculp- 
tor, seeing (conj.) there is but (adv.) little encouragement for (prep.) art 
in this country. — They say that (conj.) that ( pro. adj.) house that (rel. pro.) 
we just passed, is haunted. — Help such as (rel. pro.) need help. — Good hu- 
mor spreads happiness around, just as (conj. adv.) the sun sheds its light 
on all. — Some regard Milton as (conj.) the greatest of epic poets. 

can. When alone are the words in the list conjunctions? 448. As what other 
parts of speech do both, either, neither, and that appear, and under what circum- 
stances ? 449. What are even, then, and now, for the most part ? When is even a 
conjunction? Then! Now 7 450. When alone are except and without conjunc- 
tions ? As what, besides conjunctions, do but, for, and since appear ? What do 
we frequently find provided and seeing 7 When is so a conjunction ? What is or 
in the expression or ever 7 451. When is as a relative ? When, an adverb? When, 
a conjunctive adverb V When, a conjunction ? 452. Give examples showing these 



158 PARSING OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

453. Two conjunctions, connecting different things, may stand together; 
as, " But, if it rains, I will remain." Here but connects the whole sen- 
tence with something going before ; if connects two parts of the sentence, 
it rains and / will remain, 

454. Complex Conjunctions. — Sentences and parts 
of sentences are sometimes connected by two or three 
words, which must be taken together in parsing and 
called a Complex Conjunction. 

The complex conjunctions in most common use are 
inasmuch as, forasmuch as, as well, as well as, notwith- 
standing that, except that, as if, as though (often inele- 
gantly used for as if), and for all (when equivalent to 
although). 

455. Kemember that words must not be taken together and parsed as 
a complex adverb, preposition, or conjunction, if they retain their individ- 
ual force and can be parsed separately. 

456. Rule XVII. — A conjunction connects words, 
sentences, or parts of a sentence. 

457. Parsing. — To parse a conjunction, mention 
what it connects, and give Rule XVII. Thus : — 

For all our country is so young, it has fostered edu- 
cation and produced both authors and artists of distin- 
guished merit. 

For all is a complex conjunction, and connects the two parts of the 
sentence, our country is so young and it has fostered education and pro- 
duced both authors and artists of distinguished merit : — Rule, A conjunc- 
tion connects words, sentences, or parts of a sentence. 

And is a conjunction, and connects two parts of the sentence, it has 
fostered education and produced both authors and artists of distinguished 
merit : — Rule, A conjunction, &c. 

Both and and are conjunctions, and jointly connect the words authors 
and artists: — Rule, A conjunction, &c. 

words as different parts of speech. 453. Give an example of two conjunctions 
standing together. 454. What is a Complex Conjunction? Mention the most 
common complex conjunctions. 455. When alone may words he parsed together 
as a complex adverb, &c. ? 456. Recite Rule XVII. 457. Learn the parsing 
forms. 



INTERJECTIONS. 159 

EXERCISE. 

Parse each word : — Except the Lord build the house, they labor 
in vain that build it. — Cromwell was either a very devout and con- 
scientious man or a great hypocrite. — If an erring man repents, 
treat him the same as ever. — Such achievements as make a man 
immortal are seldom performed, nor do opportunities for perform- 
ing them frequently occur. — Charles I. lost his life, as well as his 
crown, by his own infatuation, as it were. — As for Mohammed, we 
are at a loss to decide whether he was an impostor or a fanatic, or 
a little of both. — It is said that no other plant produces so much 
nutriment in a given space of ground as the banana. 



LESSON LXI. 

THE INTERJECTION. 

458. The Interjection. — The ninth and last part of 
speech is the Interjection. 

" All aim at happiness ; but alas ! few hit the mark." 
Here the exclamation alas, expressing sorrow, is thrown into the sen- 
tence without any grammatical relation to the other words. Alas and 
similar words used independently to denote some strong or sudden emotion 
of the mind, are called Interjections. — Interjections, as their name denotes, 
may be thrown in between connected parts of discourse, but are generally 
found at the commencement of a sentence, and sometimes even stand alone. 

459. An Interjection is a word used independently of 
grammatical relations, to express some strong or sudden 
emotion of the mind. 

460. List of Interjections. — The principal interjec- 
tions are given below, arranged according to the emo- 
tion they express. 

1. Exultation. Ah ! aha ! hey ! heyday ! hurrah ! huzza ! 

2. Sorrow. Ah ! oh ! alas ! alack ! lackaday ! welladay ! 

458. What is the ninth part of speech ? In the sentence All aim at happiness ; 
but alas ! few hit the mark, what does alas express, and how is it used ? What are 
alas and words similarly used, called ? Where do interjections generally stand? 
459. Define an Interjection. 460. Mention the different emotions expressed by in- 



160 INTERJECTIONS. 

8. Wonder. Ha! hah! indeed! strange ! what ! hoity-toity! zounds! 

4. Approval. Bravo ! well-done ! 

5. Contempt, aversion. Faugh ! fie ! foh ! fudge ! pugh ! pshaw ! tut ! 

6. Weariness. Heigh-ho ! 

'7. Merriment. Ha, ha, ha ! (an imitation of the sound of laughter). 

8. Desire to drive away. Aroynt! avaunt! begone! off! shoo! 

9. Desire to address or salute. 0, hail ! all-hail ! welcome ! 

10. Desire for one 's welfare on taking leave. Adieu! farewell! good-byl 

11. Desire for attention. Ho ! soho ! what ho ! hallo ! ahoy ! lo ! harkS 

1 2. Desire for silence. Hist ! whist ! hush ! mum ! 

13. Desire to stop or interrupt another. Avast! hold! soft! 

14. Desire for information. Eh ? hey ? 

461. Interjections are generally followed, as in the 
above list, by the exclamation-point (!). Eh and hey, 
implying a question, are followed by the interrogation- 
point (?). " You meant to deceive me, hey [that is, did 

you] ? " 

462. and oh are different words. 0, always a capital, is used in 
addressing or invoking, and is not usually followed by the exclamation- 
point. Oh, which commences with a small letter except at the beginning 
of a sentence, expresses sorrow, wonder, or some other strong emotion, and 
is generally followed by the exclamation-point. 

463. Words that commonly appear as nouns, adjectives, verbs, or 
adverbs, are sometimes used independently as exclamations, under the 
influence of emotion ; as, heavens I monstrous ! see ! so I They thus be* 
come interjections. Or, we may regard them as bearing grammatical 
relations to other words understood, and, supplying what is necessary, 
still treat them as nouns, adjectives, &c. Thus, we may parse monstrous 
as an adjective relating to it understood [it is monstrous /] ; and so as an 
adverb relating to can be understood [can it be so /]. 

464. Construction. — As interjections have no gram- 
matical relations, no rule is needed in parsing them. 
They neither govern nor are governed, neither agree 
with other words nor relate to them. 

terjections, and give examples of each class. 461. What stop generally follows 
interjections ? By what are eh and hey followed ? 462. Point out the difference 
between O and oh. 463. What words are sometimes used independently as excla. 
inations 1 What two modes of parsing words thus used are suggested ? 464. Why 



PARSING OF INTERJECTIONS. 161 

465. An interjection has nothing to do with the case of a substantive 
following it, even though such substantive has no grammatical connection 
with any other word expressed. If the nominative follows, it is the nomina- 
tive independent. If the possessive or objective follows, it is governed by 
some word understood, and not by the interjection. Thus : — " Oh unhappy 
we ! " tee is in the nominative independent. " Oh my ! " my limits the 
meaning of the noun lot understood [oh my hard lot !], and is therefore in 
the possessive case. "Ah me !" me is governed in the objective case by 
the verb pity understood [Ah! pity me !] — So, Oh dear me ! Oh dear! 
that is, oh I pity dear me ! 

466. An interjection is never limited by an infinitive, or used as one of 
the terms between which a preposition shows the relation. Here again 
words are understood. l< Oh ! to be a king ! " that is, Oh ! I would like to 
be a king ! — " Oh for a lodge in some vast wilderness ! " that is, Oh ! / 
long for a lodge. 

467. Parsing. — To parse an interjection, simply state 
what emotion it implies. 

Hurrah for the hoys of '76. 

Hurrah is an interjection, implying exultation. 

For is a preposition, and shows the relation between the noun boys, 
which is its object, and the verb say understood [Hurrah ! say I for the 
boys of 5 76] : — Rule, A preposition, &c. 

EXERCISE. 

Parse each word: — Hallo there! come along, each of you! — 
Alas ! there is nothing more sad than to bid adieu to Hope. — Wel- 
come, thou bright-eyed Spring! all-hail! — Oh! the pain, the bliss 
of dying ! — TToe is me ! Alack ! I am undone ! — Ship ahoy ! — ■ 
Quick ! up with it, when I give the word. — Zounds ! what a two- 
and-sixpenny coat for a well-to-do gentleman! 

" Lo ! the poor Indian, whose untutored mind 
Sees God in clouds, and hears Him in the wind." 

" Would I had seen my dearest foe in Heaven, 
Or ever I had seen that day." 

is no rule needed in parsing interjections? 465. With what has an interjection 
nothing to do ? Explain a nominative, possessive, or objective case, following an 
interjection. 466. In what relations is an interjection never used ? 467. How Li 
an interjection parsed ? Learn the parsing form. 



162 A PRACTICAL REVIEW. 

LESSON LXII. 

A PRACTICAL REVIEW, 

Correct the errors, and tell what part of speech each word is:—< 
Beware lest thou gettest in difficulty. — If Mohammed were an 
impostor, he acted his part well. — If I was a king, I would try to 
rule wisely. — There is no danger of the world {see Rule XIV., p. 
106) being overflown by a second deluge. — I heard nothing of our 
friends being attackt. — The allies were astonisht at Napoleon ar- 
riving so soon. — If thou beest a mortal, speak. — I {will or shall ?) 
enter college next year, if nothing prevents. — Try me once more, 
and I {will or shall f) do better. — Will I help you to some meat ? — 
Thou need not to fear. — She needs not have revealed my intention. 

We be going to London. — After we are ascended, we will 
obtain a fine view. — The fire of revolution is being kindled through- 
out Europe. — A society is now being formed. — Having not read 
your book, I can not express an opinion on its merits. — You won't 
reach there in time and hadn't ought to think of starting. — It is 
time to sit about works of charity. — After a hen has lain a dozen 
eggs, she will set on them if she is permitted. — Very few per- 
sons like to set for a portrait. — Stocks have raised since yesterday. 
— A ledge of rock underlays the town. — Palmerston confesthewas 
wrong. 

Time seems to fly rapider now than it did formerly. — Few sing 
prettier than my cousin. — Your often letters are my only solace. — 
These paintings are arranged quite tasteful and look very prettily. 
—Just having arrived, he feels strangely. — Seldom or ever has a 
more learned work appeared. — Good Latin scholars learn Italian 
easilier than others. — O ! I shudder at the remembrance. — Oh 
Virtue, how amiable thou art ! — We were attackted by pirates, and 
came near being drownded. 

Write out the three chief parts of the following verds : — Hoe ; 
mutiny; array; horrify; huzza; loathe; avow; blunder; aver; 
sway; swop; swoop; sweep; cool; stun; stain; stone; unclothe; 
engrave ; uphold ; disprove ; fix ; misunderstand ; rise ; raise ; sit; 
set; flow; fly; flee; lie (to utter falsehood) ; lie (to recline) ; lay ; 
overlay ; overlie ; outbid ; recast ; dare (to challenge) ; withdraw ; 
overfeed; found; ungird; rap (to tap); overrun; wax (to put 
wax on) ; weed ; whet ; heat. 



DECLARATIVE, INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. 163 

LESSON LXIII. 

SENTENCES CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THEIR MEANING. 

468. A Sentence is such an assemblage of words as 
makes complete sense. 

" A rolling stone gathers no moss." This is a sentence, because it is 
an assemblage of words making complete sense. Stone is the grammatical 
subject (see § 106). A rolling stone is the logical subject. Gathers no 
moss is the predicate. 

469. "We learned in § 227, that in affirming we may 
either declare, ask, command, or exclaim. Hence, as 
regards their meaning, sentences are divided into four 
classes ; Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative, and 
Exclamatory. 

470. A Declarative Sentence is one that declares 
something; as, " The wind blows." 

Declarative sentences are followed by the period (.). All language, 
whether written or spoken, is made up, for the most part, of declarative 
sentences. 

471. An Interrogative Sentence is one that asks a 
question ; as, " Does the wind blow ? " 

Interrogative sentences are followed by the interrogation-point (?). 

472. An interrogative sentence generally commences either with an 
interrogative pronoun (who, which, what) or with an auxiliary ; as, " Who 
goes there ? " " Which road shall I take ? " " Shall vice triumph ? " 

473. A sentence which asserts that a question is asked, is declarative, 
not interrogative ; as, " They asked me what I said." 

474. An Imperative Sentence is one that expresses a 
command, an exhortation, an entreaty, or permission, 

<* 468. Define a Sentence. G-ive an example. 469. In affirming, what may we 
do ? How, therefore, are sentences divided ? 470. Define a Declarative Sentence. 
By what are declarative sentences followed ? Of what is all language mostly made 
up ? 471. Define an Interrogative Sentence. By what are interrogative sentences 
followed ? 472. With what do they generally commence ? 473. What kind of a 
sentence is one which asserts that a question is asked ? 474. Define an Imperative 



164: IMPERATIVE, EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES. 

and contains a verb in the imperative mood ; as, " Let 
the wind blow." "Turn from your wicked ways." 
" Thy kingdom come." " Go in safety." 

Imperative sentences are followed by the period. 

475. Imperative sentences often commence with the verb let. Their 
subject is generally understood. "Let [thou] the wind blow." u Turn 
\you\ from your wicked ways." 

476. A sentence expressing a command, &c, not conveyed by a verb 
in the imperative mood, is declarative ; as, " Thou shalt not kill." " You 
must depart." 

477. An Exclamatory Sentence is one that exclaims 
something ; as, " How the wind blows ! " 

Exclamatory sentences are followed by the exclamation-point (!). They 
often commence with the pronominal adjective what or the adverb how ; 
as, " What a fearful spectacle ! " " How bright the stars are to-night ! " 

EXERCISE. 

Supply appropriate subjects, so as to form declarative sentences: 
— 1. — is made into butter and cheese. 2. — are raised in New 
York. 3. — are sold by the bushel. 4. In building ships, — are 
used. 5. There are many — in every large city. 6. — was the 
wisest of men. 7. There was a — in the street. 

Compose imperative sentences, containing the following expres- 
sions in turn; point out the grammatical subject, the logical sub- 
ject, and the predicate of each: — 1. Obedience to parents. 2. All 
your actions. 3. Wicked men. 4. Niagara Falls. 5. The road 
to ruin. 6. Be careful. 7. Horseback riding. 8. To resist temp- 
tation. 

Change first to interrogative, and then to exclamatory sentences, 
without altering the tense of the verb. [Thus : — " Time is precious." 
Interrogative. Is time precious? Exclamatory. How precious 
time is !] 1. Almonds are produced abundantly in Spain and 
Italy. 2. Death will soon come to all. 3. Many important dis- 
coveries have been made by Americans. 4. On a hot day, a 

Sentence. By what are imperative sentences followed ? 475. With what do they 
often commence I 476. What kind of a sentence is one that expresses a command but 
does not contain a verb in the imperative ? 477. Define an Exclamatory Sentence. 
By what are exclamatory sentences followed ? How do they often commence ? 



COMPOUND AND SIMPLE SENTENCES. 165 

ehower is refreshing to the whole vegetable creation. 5. The 
yew-tree has a sad look. 6. It is singular that Africa has pro- 
duced so few great men. 7. Fine velvet is made in Italy. 8. 
Peter the Great did much to elevate and civilize the Eussians. 
9. America would suffer greatly, if her system of free education 
were abolished. 10. Spain has declined much in power and 
importance since the discovery of America. 

Compose five interrogative sentences containing interrogative 
pronouns. 



LESSON LXIV. 

SENTENCES CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THEIR FORM. 

478. Members. — Some sentences can be divided into 
two or more parts of equal rank, entirely independent 
of each other in construction and sense. Such parts 
are called Members. Every member of a sentence has 
its own subject and predicate. 

479. Compound and Simple Sentences. — Sentences 
that can be divided into two or more members, are 
called Compound Sentences. Those that can not be so 
divided, are called Simple Sentences. 

11 A man's pride shall bring him low." This sentence expresses but 
one thought, and can not be divided into two or more members ; it is 
therefore simple. If we join to it another member, with or without a con- 
junction, we express two complete thoughts and make the sentence com- 
pound. Thus: — U A man's pride shall bring him low; but honor shall 
uphold the humble in spirit." It will be seen that each of these two 
members has a subject and predicate of its own. 

480. Adjuncts and Clauses. — Members are of equal 
rank ; but sentences, whether simple or compound, may 

478. How can some sentences be divided ? What are such parts of sentences 
called"? What does every member have? 479. What are Compound Sentences ? 
What are Simple Sentences? Illustrate these definitions. 480. What besides 



166 CLAUSES. 

contain subordinate divisions. These are distinguished 
as Adjuncts and Clauses. 

An Adjunct has already been defined as consisting 
of a preposition, its object, and the words that modify 
the latter. 

A Clause is a subordinate division of a sentence, con- 
taining a verb but not expressing a complete thought, 
and generally used to modify some leading word with 
which it is connected in construction. 

481. Kinds of Clauses. — Yarious kinds of clauses 
occur in sentences. The most common are distin- 
guished as Substantive, Relative, Participial, Adverb- 
ial, Causal, Comparative, and Hypothetical. 

482. A Substantive Clause is one that performs the 
part of a noun ; as, " To rule one's anger is well ; to 
prevent it is better." " The proposal that we should 
cross in hoats was at once rejected." 

483. A Relative Clause is one that contains a relative 
pronoun expressed or understood ; as, " There are few 
of whom it can he said, ' These are truly happy <? " 
" Moses is the meekest man [that] we read of in Scrip- 
ture" 

484. A Participial Clause is one that contains a par- 
ticiple ; as, " Figures, when well chosen, embellish dis- 
course." 

485. An Adverbial Clause is one that performs the 
part of an adverb, generally expressing time, place, or 
manner ; as, " Figures, when they are well chosen, em- 
bellish discourse." " To be sure, he has written some 
good poetry." 

members may sentences contain ? Define an Adjunct. Define a Clause. 481. Enu- 
merate the kinds of clauses that most frequently occur. 482. Define a Substantive 
Clause. 483. Define a Relative Clause. 484. Define a Participial Clause. 485. De- 
tine an Adverbial Clause. In what respect does an adjunct resemble an adverbial 



CLAUSES. 167 

An adjunct, also, frequently expresses time, place, or manner, but does 
not, like an adverbial clause, contain a verb. " In the world (adjunct) we 
have tribulation." " Wltile we are in the world (adverbial clause), we have 
tribulation." 

486. A Causal Clause is one that expresses the pur- 
pose or end for which anything is or is done ; as, " Boys 
go to school, to study and improve their minds" 
" Boys go to school, in order that they may" &c. 

487. A Comparative Clause is one that contains as or 
than followed by the latter of two terms compared ; 
as, " Virtue is as rare as it is admirable" " Nothing 
more impairs authority than a too frequent use of it" 

The verb of a comparative clause is often understood, as in the last 
example : — " Nothing more impairs authority than a too frequent use of it 
[impairs it]." 

488. A Hypothetical Clause is one that expresses a 
supposition or something conceived as possible ; as, 
" If elephants were much larger, they could not support 
their own weight." 

Though, lest, and that, followed by the subjunctive mood, and if with 
any mood, introduce hypothetical clauses. " Though the wicked man heap 
up silver as dust, he shall not enjoy it." " Do not carry too much sail, 
lest you sink your vessel." " Take care that you do not fall into bad com- 
pany" 

489. The Base. — The Base of a sentence is the part 
that expresses the leading idea. Like a single word, it 
may be modified by an adjunct or clause. 

" Do not carry too much sail, lest you sink your vessel." The base of 
this sentence is the part that expresses the leading idea, do not carry too 
much sail. It is modified by the hypothetical clause lest you sink your 
vessel. 



clause, and in what does it differ? Illustrate this. 486. Define a Causal Clause. 
487. Define a Comparative Clause. What is often understood in a comparative 
clause ? 488. Define a Hypothetical Clause. How are hypothetical clauses intro- 
duced ? 489. What is the Base of a sentence ? How may the base be modified/ 



168 VOCATIVE EXPRESSIONS. 

490. Yocative Expressions. — The base of a sentence 
may also be modified by a Yocative Expression, thrown 
in like an interjection, without modifying any particu- 
lar word. 

491. Among vocative Expressions are embraced, 

1. The name of an object addressed, with its modi- 
fiers ; as, " Gentlemen of the jury, I will detain you no 
longer." 

2. A substantive used independently as an exclama- 
tion, with its modifiers ; as, " My native city, oh woe 
unutterable ! is in ruins." 

EXERCISE. 

Tell what hind of a sentence each is, — whether simple or com- 
pound, whether declarative, &c. If compound, specify the members. 
Point out the vocative expressions, the adjuncts, and clauses ; and 
tell what kind of a clause each is : — How soon Love goes out at 
the gate, when Suspicion enters ! — He who receives a good turn 
should never forget it ; he who does one should never remember 
it. — Will not a true friend, like a mirror, discover to you your 
own defects ? — My son, carry not a sword in your tongue, to injure 
another's reputation. — If we did but know it, to be angry is to 
revenge the fault of others upon ourselves. — It is a good thing, 
my melancholy friend, to laugh now and then ; and, if a straw 
can tickle a man, it is an instrument of happiness. — Conquering 
wherever he went, Alexander at last believed himself invincible. 



LESSON LXV. 

STRUCTURE OP SENTENCES. 

492. Compound Subjects and Predicates. — A sim- 
ple sentence may have a compound subject, — that is, 

Give an example. 490. By what else may the base be modified? 491. "What are 
embraced among -vocative expressions ? 

492. What is meant by a simple sentence's having a compound subject ? What 



COMPOUND SENTENCES. 169 

two or more grammatical subjects connected by a con- 
junction or not ; as, " Miches, worlds, would not induce 
me to be a king." " Alexander and Ceesar were great 
conquerors." 

A simple sentence may have a compound predicate, 
« — that is, one that consists of two parts of equal rank ; 
as, " Alexander was a great conqueror, yet met with an 
untimely end" 

A simple sentence may have a compound subject 
and a compound predicate ; as, " Alexander and Caesar 
were great conquerors, yet met with an untimely end." 

The example just given is not a compound sentence. But we can 
easily make it so, by inserting a subject for the last part of the predicate, 
which then becomes an independent member. "Alexander and Caesar 
were great conquerors, yet both met with an untimely end." Observe that 
no sentence is compound unless it can be divided into two parts oi. equal 
rank, each expressing a complete thought and having its own subject and 
predicate. 

493. A verb is sometimes understood in the predicate of one or more 
of the members of a compound sentence; as, " A clear conscience is the 
best law, honesty [is] the best policy, and temperance [is] the best physic." 

494. Compound Sentences. — The members of a com- 
pound sentence may all be of the same class, as in the 
last example. These members are all declarative, and 
the sentence is therefore called a Compound Declara- 
tive Sentence. 

But the members of a compound sentence sometimes 
belong to different classes ; as, " Old age has deformi- 
ties enough of its own ; do not add to them the de- 
formity of vice." Here the first member is declarative ; 
the second, imperative. 

is meant by its having a compound predicate ? May it have both ? Give an exam- 
ple. Convert the example just given into a compound sentence. WTien only is a 
sentence compound? 493. What is sometimes understood in the predicate? 
494. What difference subsists in compound sentences, as regards the class of their 
members? What do we call a sentence whose members belong to different 
8 



170 PRINCIPAL PAKTS OF A SENTENCE. 

Such a sentence we call a Compound Sentence with 
Dissimilar Members. 

495. Principal Parts. — Every simple sentence and 
every member of a compound sentence lias at least two 
principal parts, — the grammatical subject and the lead- 
ing verb. " The cold winds blow." The grammatical 
subject winds and the leading verb blow are the two 
principal parts. 

Most sentences and members have a third principal 
part, besides the two just mentioned. 

496. If the leading verb has an object, this object 
constitutes the third principal part. " Cold winds blow 
up storms." Here are three principal parts, — the gram- 
matical subject winds, the leading verb blow, and the 
object storms. 

497. If the leading verb has no object, it is sometimes 
followed by a substantive referring to the same person 
or thing as the grammatical subject, and called the 
Predicate Nominative. Or, it may be followed by an 
adjective belonging to the grammatical subject, and 
called the Predicate Adjective. 

The predicate nominative and the predicate adjective 
constitute a third principal part in sentences containing 
them. 

*" Washington was unanimously elected commander-in-chief." Here 
are three principal parts, — the grammatical subject Washington, the lead- 
ing verb was elected, and the predicate nominative co?mnander-in-chief. 

" Washington was at all times incorruptible." Here again are three 
principal parts, — the grammatical subject Washington, the leading verb 
was, and the predicate adjective incorruptible. 

classes ? 495. How many principal parts must every simple sentence and every 
member of a compound sentence have ? What are these two principal parts ? 
How many principal parts do most sentences and members have? 496. In some 
sentences, what constitutes the third principal part ? 497. What, in other eon* 
tences ? Give examples. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 171 

EXERCISE. 

Classify the sentences; mention their principal parts. Select 
the compound subjects and predicates : — Galileo and Milton both 
ended their days in total blindness.— Inexhaustible are the beauties 
of nature ; what can equal them in variety ? — Miss Caroline Her- 
schel, sister of the great astronomer, aided her brother in his 
labors, and herself discovered no less than five comets. — Love your 
enemies ; can anything be more godlike ? — Men and women too 
often play their part in life as if there were no hereafter. — Pekin 
and Jeddo are the largest cities in Asia. 



LESSON LXVI. 

ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

498. By the Analysis of a sentence is meant the pro- 
cess of resolving it into its simple parts. 

499. In analyzing a sentence, state its class ; select 
its principal parts; tell by what words, adjuncts, or 
clauses each is modified, and by what these modifiers 
are themselves modified, resolving adjuncts into the 
words that compose them, and clauses into their prin- 
cipal parts and modifiers. If the sentence is compound, 
treat each member in turn as just described. 

Forms op Analysis. 

]Vb one knew how to use gold more effectually than 
Philip, king of Macedon. 

A simple declarative sentence. 

The principal parts are the grammatical subject one and the leading 
verb knew. 

The grammatical subject one is modified by the adjective no. 

The leading verb knew is modified by the adverb fiow, which is itself 

498. What is meant by the Analysis of a sentence ? 499. In analyzing a sen- 
tence, what must be done? If the sentence is compound, how do you proceed? 
Learn the forms of analysis. 



172 FORMS OF ANALYSIS. 

modified by the infinitive to use. To use is modified by its object gold, and 
the adverb effectually, which is itself modified by the adverb more ; and 
more is in turn modified by the comparative clause than Philip, king of 
Macedon, connected with it by the conjunction than. The principal parts 
of this clause are the grammatical subject Philip and the leading verb knew 
understood. The grammatical subject Philip is modified by the noun king 
in apposition with it, which is itself modified by the adjunct of Macedon, 
consisting of the preposition of and its object Macedon. 

When lad men combine, the good must associate ; else 
they will fall) one lyone, an untitled sacrifice, in a con- 
temptible struggle. 

A compound declarative sentence. The first member is when bad men 
combine, the good must associate. The second member is else they will 
fall, one by one, an unpitied sacrifice* in a contemptible struggle. 

The principal parts of the first member are the grammatical subject men 
understood and the leading verb must associate. 

The grammatical subject men is modified by the article the and the 
adjective good. 

The leading verb must associate is modified by the adverbial clause 
when bad men combine, connected with it by the conjunctive adverb when. 
The principal parts of this clause are its grammatical subject men, modified 
by the adjective bad, and the leading verb combine. 

The principal parts of the second member are the grammatical subject 
they and the leading verb will fall. 

The grammatical subject they is modified, 1. By the noun man under- 
stood, in apposition with it. Man is modified by the adjective one, and 
this in turn by the adjunct by one, consisting of the preposition by and the 
adjective one modifying the noun man understood, the object of the prep- 
osition. 2. By the noun sacrifice in apposition with it, which is modified 
by the article an and the adjective mipitied. 

The leading verb will fall is modified, 1. By the adverb else. 2. By the 
adjunct in a contemptible struggle, consisting of the preposition in and its 
object struggle, which is modified by the article a and the adjective con- 
temptible. 

Tell me with whom you associate, and I will tell you 
what you are. 

A compound sentence with dissimilar members. The first member, 
tell me with whom you associate, is imperative. The second member, and 
I will tell you what you are } is declarative. 



FORMS OF ANALYSIS. 173 

The principal parts of the first member are the grammatical subject 
thou understood and the leading verb tell. 

The grammatical subject thou has no modifiers. 

The leading verb tell is modified, 1. By the adjunct [to] me, consisting 
of the preposition to understood and its object me. 2. By the clause with 
whom you associate. The principal parts of this clause are its grammatical 
subject you, which has no modifiers, and its leading verb associate, modified 
by the adjunct with whom, consisting of the preposition with and its object 
whom. 

The second member is connected with the first by the conjunction and. 
Its principal parts are the grammatical subject /and the leading verb will telL 

The grammatical subject /has no modifiers. 

The leading verb will tell is modified, 1. By the adjunct [to] you, con- 
sisting of the preposition to understood and its object you. 2. By the 
clause what you are. The principal parts of this clause are the grammatical 
subject you, the leading verb are, and the predicate nominative what, — all 
unmodified. 

EXEECISE. 

Analyze according to the aoove forms : — The age of chivalry has 
departed. — Is not contentment a pearl of great price ? — The way 
to fame, like the way to Heaven, passes through much tribulation. 
— The passage to the East Indies around the Cape of Good Hope 
-was discovered in 1497, hy a Portuguese navigator. — Omnibuses 
are said to have originated in Paris, not long after the commence- 
ment of the present century. — Amid all thy pursuits and pleasures, 
remember that thou art mortal. — How few persons know what 
isinglass is made of! — I do not think you can tell me what a sponge 
is. can you ? — Do not wait to strike, till the iron is hot ; can you 
not make it hot yourself by striking ? 



LESSON LXVII. 

ANALYSIS (CONTINUED) 

500. Quotations. — A Quotation is a word or passage 
taken, or represented as taken, from some writer or 
speaker. 

501. One sentence is often incorporated in another as 

500, What is a Quotation ? 501. What two modes are there of introducing a 



174 FORMS OF ANALYSIS. 

a quotation. When introduced by the conjunction that, 
the quoted sentence with that forms a clause modifying 
some leading word, and in analyzing must be treated 
like other clauses. "When brought in without that, the 
quoted sentence generally modifies some preceding verb, 
and is itself to be analyzed like any other sentence. 
502. Forms of Analysis. — Further models follow : — - 
/Socrates, remembering his wife Xanthippe? s temper, 
called beauty " a short-lived tyranny "; and is it not 
loth short-lived and a tyranny ? 

A compound sentence with dissimilar members. The first member, 
Socrates, remembering his wife Xanthippe's temper, called beauty "a short- 
lived tyranny" is declarative. The second member, and is it not both 
short-lived and a tyranny, is interrogative. 

The principal parts of the first member are the grammatical subject 
Socrates, the leading verb called, and its object beauty. 

The grammatical subject Socrates is modified by the participial clause 
remembering his wife Xanthippe } s temper. This clause consists of the par- 
ticiple remembering, and its object temper, which is modified by the pos- 
sessive Xanthippe's ; and this is modified by the noun wife in apposition 
with it, and this in turn by the possessive his. 

The leading verb called has no modifiers. 

The object beauty is modified by the noun tyranny in apposition with 
it, which is itself modified by the article a and the adjective short-lived. 

The second member is connected with the first by the conjunction and. 
Its principal parts are the grammatical subject it, which has no modifiers ; 
the leading verb is, modified by the adverb not ; and the predicate adjec- 
tive short-lived, and the predicate nominative tyranny (modified by the 
article a), which are connected by the conjunctions both and and. 

The Spectator justly remarks that, " Had Cicero him- 
self pronounced one of his orations with a blanket about 
his shoulders, more people would have laughed at his 
dress than have admired his eloquence P 

A simple declarative sentence. 

quotation! How are quoted sentences to be treated in analyzing? 502. Learn the 
forms. 



FORMS OF ANALYSIS. 175 

The principal parts are the grammatical subject Spectator and the lead- 
ing verb remarks. 

The grammatical subject Spectator is modified by the article the. 

The leading verb remarks is modified, 1. By the adverb justly. 2. By 
the clause that, "Had Cicero himself pronounced one of his orations,'''' &c. 
This clause consists of a quoted sentence introduced by the conjunction that. 

The quoted sentence Had Cicero, &c, is a simple declarative sentence. 

Its principal parts are the grammatical subject people and the leading 
verb would have laughed. 

The grammatical subject people is modified by the adjective more, which 
is itself modified by the comparative clause than have admired his eloquence, 
connected with it by the conjunction than. The principal parts of this 
clause are the grammatical subject people, the leading verb have admired, 
and its object eloquence, modified by the possessive his. 

The leading verb would have laughed is modified by the adjunct at his 
dress, consisting of the preposition at and its object dress, which is modified 
by the possessive his. 

The base of the quoted sentence is modified by the hypothetical clause 
had Cicero himself pronounced one of his orations with a blanket about his 
shoulders. The principal parts of this clause are the grammatical subject 
Cicero, the leading verb had pronounced, and its object oration understood. 
The grammatical subject Cicero is modified by the pronoun himself in ap- 
position with it. The leading verb had pronounced is modified by the ad- 
junct with a blanket, consisting of the preposition with and its object blan- 
ket, which is modified, 1. By the article a. 2. By the adjunct about his 
shoulders, consisting of the preposition about and its object shoulders, which 
is modified by the possessive his. The object oration understood is modi- 
fied, 1. By the adjective one. 2. By the adjunct of his oratio?is, consisting 
of the preposition of and its object orations, modified by the possessive his, 

" That creditors should have hetter memories than 
debtors" wittily observes a distinguished writer, " is not 
to be ivondered at." 

A simple declarative sentence. 

The principal parts are the grammatical subject writer and the leading 
verb observes. 

The grammatical subject writer is modified by the article a and the 
adjective distinguished. 

The leading verb observes is modified by the adverb wittily and the 
quoted sentence that creditors should have better memories than debtors is 
not to be wondered at. 



176 FORMS OF ANALYSIS. 

This quoted sentence is simple and declarative. Its principal parts are 
the grammatical subject, which is the substantive clause that creditors 
should have better memories than debtors, and the leading verb is. 

The principal parts of the substantive clause which forms the gram- 
matical subject are its grammatical subject creditors, which has no modi- 
fiers; the leading verb should have, also unmodified; and the object 
memories, which is modified by the adjective better, and this is itself modi- 
fied by the comparative clause than debtors, connected with it by the con- 
junction than. The principal parts of this clause are the grammatical 
subject debtors and the leading verb have understood. 

The leading verb is modified by the infinitive to be wondered at, and this 
is itself modified by the adverb not. 

Thoughtless man, do not temperance and self-restraint 
save you from many evils and promote your happiness ? 

A simple interrogative sentence. 

The principal parts are the grammatical subjects temperance and self- 
restraint, the leading verbs do save and promote, and the objects you and 
happiness, belonging respectively to the leading verbs do save and promote. 

The grammatical subjects, temperance and self-restraint, are connected 
by the conjunction and, and have no modifiers. 

The leading verbs do save and promote are connected by the conjunc- 
tion and, and are both modified by the adverb not. The leading verb do 
save is further modified by the adjunct from many evils, consisting of the 
preposition from and its object evils, which is modified by the adjective 
many. 

The object you has no modifiers. The object happiness is modified by 
the possessive your. 

The base of the sentence is modified by the vocative expression thought- 
less man, consisting of man, the name of an object addressed, and the 
adjective thoughtless, by which it is modified. 

EXERCISE. 

Analyze the following sentences : — If I am not mistaken, the 
best nutmegs and pepper come from Sumatra and the Moluccas. — 
How utterly ignorant of human nature is lie who has passed his 
days in his study alone, without mingling with the world ! — Cast 
thy bread upon the waters ; for thou shalt find it after many days. 
— " "What did you do during the summer ? " asked an ant of a 
grasshopper, who petitioned for food when winter was about set- 
ting in. " I played and sung," answered the grasshopper. "Well, 



ELLIPSIS. 177 

now dance," was the ant's response. — The following sentence is 
inscribed on Gen. Putnam's tomb-stone : " He dared to lead where 
any dared to follow." 



LESSON LXVIII. 

ELLIPSIS. 

503. Ellipsis. — For the sake of brevity, we often 
omit words that are not essential to the sense, but are 
necessary in parsing, to explain the government, agree- 
ment, or relation of the words expressed. Such an 
omission is called an Ellipsis. 

The words omitted are said to be understood. In 
parsing, they must be supplied as they are needed. 

504. Exam/pies. — As ellipses often occasion diffi- 
culty in parsing, it will be well to attend to the follow- 
ing examples. They will serve to explain certain com- 
mon constructions and others like them. 

1. Ellipsis of the subject of a verb. 

As regards the Crusades, they were certainly beneficial to Europe. 
[Here there is an ellipsis of the subject it, with which the verb regards 
agrees in the third person, singular number : — As it regards the Crusades, 
&c] 

The names of the twelve tribes were as follows. [In this sentence, as 
is a conjunctive adverb, and follows agrees with its subject it understood, 
in the third, singular. To make it plural, follow, because names is plural, 
would be wrong.] 

As far as [it] concerns England, she is a loser by the bargain. 

Act as [it] seems best. Remember [thou] thy Creator. 

[Whether /] Sink or swim, [whether /] survive or perish, I am for the 
Declaration. Do not buy more coal than [what] is needed. 

In future ages, men may need all the land [that] there is. 

Will you go or stay? [/will] Stay. 

Our young friend is more extravagant than [it] is good for him [to be]. 

503. What is meant by an Ellipsis? What is said of the words omitted? 
What must be done in parsing ? 504. Give examples of the ellipsis of the subject 



178 EXAMPLES OF ELLIPSIS. 

2. Ellipsis of the noun to which an adjective relates. 

The honorable [body] the Legislature. Charles the Simple [king]. 
The virtuous [perso?is] are happy. The professedly virtuous [persons] 
are not always really so. Even the strongest [persons] will sometimes 
faint by the way. [ Virtuous being modified in the second sentence by 
the adverb professedly, and strongest being in the superlative degree, they 
are evidently adjectives relating to a noun understood, and not themselves 
nouns.] 

To be [a] virtuous [person] is to be [a] happy [person]. 

3. Ellipsis of the noun modified by a substantive in 
the possessive case. 

It is thine [thy business] to command. — There shall nothing die of all 
that is the children's [property] of Israel. — I shall stop at Thomson's [shop], 
to get some paper. 

4. Ellipsis of the relative. 

Moses is the meekest man [that] we read of in the Bible. — It is infinite 
wisdom [that] orders all things here below. 

5. Ellipsis of the antecedent of a relative. 

[Those] Who utter slanders do false witness bear. — [Him] Whom he 
loveth, he chasteneth. 

6. Ellipsis of a verb. 

[Get] Up and [go] away. — [It is] No matter what I do, I can not please 
you. — Washington loved very few as well as [he loved] La Fayette. — The 
enemy [being] at the gates, there was no time for delay 

7. Ellipsis of a preposition. 

The army were ready to offer [to] Washington a crown. — Few can 
paint like [to] Titian. — Cut [for] me some bread. — She sits [on] a horse 
well. — A great many [of] rogues. [In this expression, many is a noun.] 

8. Ellipsis of a conjunction. 

To the intent [that] ye may believe. — Were I [if I were] there, 1 
should make the attempt. 

of a verb. Give examples of the ellipsis of a noun to which an adjective relates. 
Give examples of the ellipsis of a noun modiied by a substantive in the possessive 
case. Give examples of the ellipsis of the relative. Of the antecedent of a rela- 



EXERCISE IN ELLIPTICAL PARSING. 179 

505. In a fragmentary style, ellipses, even of several 
words, are frequent. This will be seen in the following 
extract from one of Douglas Jerrold's " Caudle Curtain 
Lectures," which will serve as an exercise in elliptical 
parsing. Each sentence may be analyzed as well as 
parsed. 

MRS. CAUDLE DWELLS ON CAUDLE'S " CRUEL NEGLECT " OF HER ON 
BOARD THE RED ROVER. 

"Caudle, have you looked under the bed? What for? Bless 
the man! Why, for thieves, to be sure. Do you suppose I'd 
sleep in a strange bed without ? Don't tell me it's nonsense ! I 
shouldn't sleep a wink all night. Not that you'd care for 
that ; not that you'd — hush ! I'm sure I hear somebody. No, 
it's not a bit like a mouse. Yes; that's like you; laugh! It 
would be no laughing matter, if — I'm sure there is somebody. 

" — Yes, Mr. Caudle; now I am satisfied. Any other man 
would have got up and looked himself; especially after my suffer- 
ings on board that nasty ship. But catch you stirring ! Oh, no ! 
You'd let me lie here and be robbed and killed, for what you'd 
care. "Why, you're not going to sleep I What do you say ? IV s 
the strange air — and yotfre always sleepy in a strange air ? That 
shows the feelings you have after what I've gone through. And 
yawning, too, in that brutal manner ! 

" No, I couldn't leave my temper at home. I dare say ! Because 
for once in your life you've brought me out — yes, I say once, or 
two or three times, it isn't more ; because, as I say, you once 
bring me out, I'm to be a slave and say nothing. Pleasure, in- 
deed ! A great deal of pleasure I'm to have, if I'm to hold my 
tongue ! 

" Dear me ! if the bed doesn't spin round and dance about ! 
I've got all that filthy ship in my head ! No, I shan't be well 
in the morning. You needn't groan in that way, Mr. Caudle, 
disturbing the people, perhaps, in the next room. It's a mercy 
I'm alive, I'm sure. If once I wouldn't have given all the world 
for anybody to have thrown me overboard! What are you 

Ive. Of a verb. Of a preposition. Of a coDjunction. 505. In what kind of style 
we ellipses frequent! # 



180 EXERCISE IN ELLIPTICAL PARSING. 

smacking your lips at, Mr. Caudle ? But I know what you mean 
—of course, you'd never have stirred to stop 'em ; not you. And 
then you might have known that the wind would have blown 
to-day ; but that's why you came. 

" What do you say? A good deal my own fault? I took too 
much dinner f "Well, you are a man ! If I took more than the 
breast and the leg of that young goose — a thing, I may say, just 
out of the shell — with the slightest bit of stuffing, I'm a wicked 
woman. What do you say ? Lobster salad ? La ! how can you 
speak of it ? A month-old baby would have eaten more. What ? 
Gooseberry fief Well, if you'll name that, you'll name any- 
thing. Ate too much indeed! Do you think I was going to 
pay for a dinner, and eat nothing ? No, Mr. Caudle ; it's a good 
thing for you that I know a little more of the value of money 
than that. 

" It's a mercy that some of the dear children were not drowned ; 
not that their father would have cared. Peter was as near 
through one of the holes as — Ifs no such thing f It's very 
well for you to say so, but you know what an inquisitive boy 
he is, and how he likes to wander among steam-engines. ISTo, 
I won't let you sleep. What a man you are! Go to sleep, 
indeed ! as if one could never have a little rational conversation. 

" A miserable creature they must have thought me in the 
ladies' cabin, with nobody coming down to see how I was. You 
came a dozen times t No, Caudle, that won't do. I know better. 
And when I was so ill that I didn't know a single thing that was 
going on about me, and you never came. Every other woman's 
husband was there — ha ! twenty times. And what must have been 
my feelings to hear 'em tapping at the door, and making all sorts 
of kind inquiries — something like husbands! — and I was left to 
be ill alone ! Yes, and you want to get me into an argument. 
You want to know if I was so ill that I knew nothing, how could 
I know that you didn't come to the cabin door. That's just like 
your aggravating way. But I'm not to be caught in that manner, 
Caudle. No." 

"It is very possible," writes Caudle, "that she talked two 
hours more : but, happily, the wind got suddenly up — the waves 
bellowed — and, soothed by the sweet lullaby, I somehow fell 
asleep. 11 



DIFFICULT CONSTRUCTIONS EXPLAINED. 181 

LESSON LXIX. 

EXPLANATION OF DIFFICULT CONSTRUCTIONS. 

506. Some of the most common expressions involve 
difficulties in parsing. Many of these have already 
been explained ; some more are presented below, with 
suggestions to aid the pupil. Let portions of conve- 
nient length be assigned as lessons, and each sentence 
be analyzed and parsed. 

How much [adj., relating to money understood] is it worth 
[prep.] ? — John Jacob Astor was worth nearly twenty millions 
[object of the prep, worth] of dollars. — It is worth while to go to 
Strasburg, just to see the Cathedral. — Victory over one's self is a 
victory worth talking of [part, used independently, § 440]. 

The wise man is always ready for the ups [noun] and downs 
of life. — Every now and then we heard the cannon boom [infln.]. 
— Thy throne is established of old [adj., relating to time under- 
stood]. — Forgive me this once [noun, obj. case, Eule V.]. — All 
[adv.] at once the sky was overcast. — The news soon spread all 
over the country. — If honor is left, all [noun] is not lost. 

What [adv., equivalent to partly] by force, what by policy, he 
took fifty castles. — What with hunger, what with fatigue, we 
could advance no farther. — What [difference would it make] 
though none live my innocence to tell? — What [would be the 
consequence] if an insurrection should break out? — What ho! 
warriors, have you seen any one of my sisters wandering this way 
[Rule V.] ? 

Somehow or other [adv.], he is always first. — Children manage 
to move about in some way or other [adj.], even if it is on all-fours 
[noun]. — You are beaten all hollow [adv.] ; for shame! — I wrote 
a month ago [adj.]. — Of the cattle of the children of Israel, died 
not one [animal]. — We have more than [what] heart could wish. — ■ 
My friend the doctor's wife has been taken seriously ill. 

Full many a flower is born to blush unseen. [Many is an 
adj. and relates to flower, which is singular though more than one 
are meant. This is because many a has a distributive force, like 
every ; we say every man, though we mean more than one — all 



182 DIFFICULT CONSTRUCTIONS EXPLAINED. 

men.] — By the bye [noun], have you e'er a [corrupted into dry\ 
newspaper to lend ? — We saw ne'er a [corrupted into nary] man 
during our whole ride. [E'er a is equivalent to any ; ne'er a, to 
no. These constructions are analogous to many a ; and e'er and 
ne'er are adjectives.] 

He is all the time saying that such and such [adj.] a person 
is to be admired. — "What did you find in the drawer ? A ten- 
dollar [adj.] bill [object of found understood], a bright-red ribbon, 
and a twenty-inch rule. — My health is so-so [adj.] ; how is yours ? 
— His own [adj., relating to people understood] received him not. — 
They are all gone [for have gone, § 356]. So much the better [adj., 
relating to it understood]. 

Ellipses, as [it] has been said above, often occasion difficulties 
in parsing.— [I wish you] Good morning, Harriet; what a fine 
day it is! — Long life to the republic ! — [Though we] Go where we 
may, we find traces of sin everywhere. — Go or stay, I am satisfied. 
— To redeem such a sinner as I [am], is indeed a triumph of grace. 
— "We have progressed further in art than the ancients [progressed]. 
— They hurt themselves more than [they hurt] us. [In all such 
constructions than is a conjunction, and the case of the word fol- 
lowing it depends on something understood.] 

A hundred [collective noun, almost always construed with a 
plural verb] people [object of of understood] may be killed, yet no- 
body is to blame. — A few railroads will soon open up the country. 
— A great many houses are to let in Twenty-eighth Street. — Have 
you a high-pressure steamboat to sell? — They are so much alike you 
can not tell which is which [inter, pro.]. — Every thing depends on 
[prep., having for its object the substantive clause that follows] 
who your friends are. — At the time that I was there, not a ship 
was in port. — A reward shall be given to whoever [§ 163] shall 
arrest the criminal. 

Science' [Rule III.] self could wish no more devoted follower. 
^— The keeper of the forest's daughter has arrived. [More ele- 
gantly, the daughter of the keeper of the forest. As first expressed, 
keeper of the forest's must be looked upon as a complex noun in the 
possessive case.] — Those lips of Washington's [§130] are now silent 
forever. — That portrait of my father's needs varnishing. — He has 
bought more books than [what] are needed. — I shall lay in only 
ae many books as [rel. pro.] are needed. 



DIFFICULT CONSTRUCTIONS EXPLAINED. 183 

They could do nothing except pray [infinitive, limiting the 
meaning of the prep, except]. — If I were you, I would do nothing 
hut wait in patience. — It is likely to injure rather than "benefit 
[infin., limiting the meaning of the conj. than) us. — Poly carp died 
rather than give up his faith. — He could not do otherwise than 
say what he did. — The hamster rat, rather than yield, will allow 
itself to he beaten to pieces. 

We can but rejoice. — We can not hut rejoice. [The latter sen- 
tence expresses the same idea as the former, but more strongly. 
Two negatives usually nullify each other and make the sentence 
affirmative, but here they strengthen the negation. But is an ad- 
verb.] — Cyrus did his utmost to please his friends. 

I had as lief cross the ocean as not. [Had cross is evidently a 
corruption ; for the auxiliary had should be combined with the 
participle crossed, and not the root of the verb cross. The mean- 
ing, as well as the correct form of this expression, is I would as 
lief cross the ocean as not. Parse, therefore, as follows : had cross 
is a corruption for would cross, potential mood, imperfect tense, 
&c. I had may have come thus to be confounded with / would, 
in consequence of the frequent abbreviation of both expres- 
sions into Fd.] — You had best not disturb her. — A good man had 
rather conceal another's faults than make them known. — You had 
better first see whether you are invulnerable yourself. 

Every one tried to make much [noun] of La Fayette. — Xever 
make light [noun] of serious things. — Cursed be he that setteth 
light by his father or his mother. — The whole community set 
store by an honest man. — He is so awkward that people are 
apt to make fun of him. — Before going, make [intrans.] sure 
[adj., relating to you understood, the subject of make] of the means 
of returning. — The village boys make quite free with our orchard. 
— The Hindoo women make away with their children, by throwing 
them into the Ganges. — I will make bold to tell you that you fall 
far short of my expectations. — Have you taken possession of your 
house ? 

[To rnaJce much of and several of the similar expressions just 
presented are sometimes thrown into the passive form, by taking 
the object of the preposition for a subject and incorporating prep- 
osition and noun with the verb. Thus : La Fayette was made 
much of by everybody. Here was made much of conveys a single 



184: DIFFICULT CONSTRUCTIONS EXPLAINED. 

idea — was caressed — and must be parsed as a transitive verb in the 
passive voice. Taken separately, the words can not be satisfac- 
torily parsed. Anomalous as this idiom is, it is used by good 
writers.] — Serious things should not be made light of.— Nobody 
likes to be made fun of. — Many children are made away with 
every year by the Hindoo women. — Salamanca was next taken 
possession of by the British. 

We took it for [a] granted [thing] that you had started. — Have 
they given up the child for [a] lost [child] ? — I can not help think- 
ing that you are a little premature. — We have a pleasant world to 
live in [adv.]. — You have as fine a house as anybody need want 
to live in [prep., having the relative as for its object]. — It is a 
matter that you will gain nothing by alluding to. 

Maugre [prep.] all you can say, I am resolved not to go. — In- 
side the building, despite our efforts, all was confusion. — I took 
the cars for Buffalo, via [prep.] Dunkirk, but on arriving there 
found myself minus my purse. — A fire came out from before the 
Lord. — Six times three is eighteen. [That is, Three taken six 
times is eighteen. Three, the subject, is a noun in the nomina- 
tive ; times is in the objective, according to Kule V.] 



LESSON LXX. 

SUBJECT.-NOMINATIVE INDEPENDENT.-FALSE SYNTAX. 

507. Syntax. — The following principles apply to 
words combined in sentences : — 

1. One word may agree with another, as verb with 
subject. 

2. One word may relate to another, as adjective to 
substantive. 

3. A word may be put in a certain case on account 
of its relation to some other, as the object of a verb in 
the objective. 

607. State the principles that apply to words combined in sentences. 



SYNTAX. 185 

4. Usage often requires the words to be arranged in 
a certain way. 

508. The word syntax means a putting together. That 
part of grammar which treats of the relations and ar- 
rangement of words put together is called Syntax. 

The rules that bear on these relations are called the 
Eules of Syntax. Violations of these rules are called 
False Syntax. 

509. In the preceding lessons have been presented, 
as they were needed in parsing, seventeen rules of syn- 
tax. These will now be reconsidered in detail. Their 
application in different cases will be explained, and 
additional principles relating to the construction and 
arrangement of sentences will be laid down. The 
various errors into which there is a liability to fall in 
speaking or writing, will be presented for correction 
under the several rules, as False Syntax. 

The reasons for making the corrections should in all cases be given, 
according to the models. After the sentences are corrected, they may be 
analyzed and parsed, in whole or in part, at the pleasure of the teacher. 

RULE I.— Subject. 

510. A substantive that is the subject of a verb is in 
the nominative case. 

511. Arrangement. — The subject generally precedes 
its verb. 

512. Exceptions. — In the following cases, the subject comes after the 
verb; if the tense is compound, after the first auxiliary: — 

1. "When the verb is in the imperative mood, first or second person ; 
as, " Pause we now." " Repent ye" 

508. What does the word syntax mean ? In grammar, what is meant by Syntax ? 
What is meant by the Rules of Syntax ? What is False Syntax ? 509. Why are 
the rules of syntax now repeated? 510. Recite Rule I., relating to the subject. 
511. How does the subject generally stand, as regards its verb ? 512. What four 
exceptions are noted ? What is sometimes the effect of placing the subject after 



186 NOMINATIVE INDEPENDENT. 

2. When the verb is used interrogatively ; as, " Are you safe ? " " Will 
Howard ever be forgotten ? " 

3. When if or though, denoting a supposition, is suppressed ; as, u Had 
the British been wise, they would have listened to the colonists [for, If the 
British had been wise, &c.]." 

4. When a wish is expressed with the potential; as, "May justice 
triumph ! " 

The subject may, in other cases, particularly in poetry, follow its verb, 
— and often with fine effect; as, " How beautiful is nature " "Let there 
be light, said God, and there was light" 

RULE II. — Nominative Independent. 

513. A substantive used independently is in the 
nominative case. 

Examples. — He being away, the work suffers. — Conscript fathers, with 
you it rests to punish guilt. — Oh, wretched day ! — My country — where is 
she now? — His last words were, "My wife! my child!" — James I. would 
not allow his subjects to approach him, — a course that always gives dissat- 
isfaction. — The reputation of being a wit is not worth much. — I had no 
suspicion of its being you. 

514. Caution. — Every substantive that appears to be used independ- 
ently is not really so used. The case may depend on a word understood. 
"Farewell! a pleasant voyage ! " Here voyage is not in the nominative 
independent, but in the objective, the object of the verb wish understood 
— / wish you a pleasant voyage. So, at the close of a letter, "Your 
obedient servant, Henry Jones." Servant is not nominative independent, 
but nominative after the verb am understood — / am your obedient servant. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Undee § 510. They said they could run faster than me. 

[ Corrected. — They said they could run faster than /. Me must 
be changed to /, the nominative case, because it is the subject of 
the verb could run understood.] 

Her and me are going to the fair.— The Bermudas' were dis- 
covered by Juan Bermudez. — Them that help themselves deserve 
help. — Few are so industrious as her. — Who interrupted me just 
now ? Me. — Whom do you suppose arrived last night ? — Where 

the verb ? 513. Recite Rule II., relating to the nominative independent. Give ex- 
ample*. 514. What caution is given ? Illustrate this. 



FALSE SYNTAX. 187 

are him and you staying? — Edible birds'-nests 1 are in great favor 
with the Chinese. — Which of you tore that curtain ? Not me, but 
him. — You certainly can not think that you are happier than us. — 
Kangaroo's are found only in Australia. — Thee needst not have 
rebuked me so severely. — Him who honestly earns his bread by 
the sweat of his brow, all men respect ; but him who is too proud 
to work is esteemed by none. 

Under § 513. Oh blissful hour, and thrice-blessed us that see it! 

[Corrected. — Oh blissful hour, and thrice-blessed we that see 
it ! Us must be changed to we, the nominative case, because it is 
used independently.] 

Him that hath eyes to see, let him see. — Thee guiding us, spirit 
of art, we shall surmount the difficulties of the way. — Us absent, 
matters will probably be neglected. — Her having died, the estate 
reverted to her mother.— Ah miserable us ! why are we thus for- 
saken ? — Him having been mentioned as a suitable party, would it 
not be well to offer him the situation?— Them that are athirst, let 
them all come and drink. 

And her, the sportive, guileless forest maid, 
Where is she now ? Ah ! ask the flowers that fade. 

EXERCISE IN VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. 

Vary the form of the following sentences without altering their 
meaning, oy substituting for the dependent clause in each another 
clause containing a nominative independent and a participle. 

As she is a general favorite, there are few that do not miss her. 

[Varied. — She being a general favorite, there are few that do 
not miss her.] 

After he had been defeated, the senate once more returned to 
the city. — As they are in the wrong, I do not feel called on to 
apologize. — They have no claim to the rents, inasmuch as we are 
owners of the property. — Since you and T have agreed on terms, 
I can not see why any one should interfere. — I shall go to see 
Keuben and Ralph to-morrow, for they are the principal parties 
interested. — As she and her sisters are acquaintances of mine, I 
will introduce you with pleasure. — Inasmuch as Maria, you, and I, 
are the principal heirs, it is proper that we should be present when 
the will is read. 



188 SUBSTANTIVES MODIFYING NOUNS. 

LESSON LXXI. 

SUBSTANTIVES MODIFYING NOUNS.-FALSE SYNTAX. 



RULE III. — Substantives modifying Nouns. 

515. A substantive that modifies a noun denoting a 
different person or thing by implying possession, origin, 
or fitness, is in the possessive case. 

Examples. — Grace was in all her steps. — Elizabeth's reign was longer 
than Mary's. — I expect to attend St. Peter's [church] to-morrow. — We 
called at the Mayor's [office]. — That clock is mine \iny property]. — The 
governor of New York's message. 

516. When there are several modifying substantives, they are all in the 
possessive case. If they separately modify different nouns, each has the 
sign of the possessive. If they jointly modify the same noun, the posses- 
sive sign is annexed only to the last. If John, George, and Henry have 
different fathers, I say " John's, George's, and Henry's father have ar- 
rived ; " that is, John's father, George's father, and Henry's father. If they 
are brothers, I say " John, George, and Henry's father has arrived." John 
and George are still in the possessive case ; but, as all three substantives 
jointly modify the same noun, father expressed, the sign of the possessive 
is annexed to the last only. 

517. When a modifying noun has another noun in apposition with it 
in the possessive case, the sign of the possessive is annexed only to the one 
nearest the noun modified; as, "Jeremiah the prophet's Lamentations." 
"The prophet Jeremiah's Lamentations." " I saw it at M osely's [store], 
the jeweller that has just opened on Main Street." 

518. When a modifying noun is followed by an adjunct or adjective, 
the sign of the possessive is annexed to the latter and not to the noun ; as, 
"the mayor of Troy's visit," "Richard the Lion-hearted *s career." — Mayor 
of Troy's and Richard the Lion-hearted' s must here be parsed as complex 
nouns in the possessive case, for the whole expression is made possessive. 

515. Recite Rule III., relating to substantives modifying nouns. Give exam- 
ples. 516. When there are several modifying substantives, in what case are they? 
If they separately modify different nouns, which takes the sign of the possessive? 
Which, if they jointly modify the same noun ? 517. When a modifying noun has 
another noun in apposition with it, which takes the sign of the possessive case? 
518. When a modifying noun is followed by an adjunct or adjective, where does 



SUBSTANTIVES MODIFYING NOUNS 189 

Such constructions, however, it is best to avoid; say "the visit of the 
major of Troy," " the career of Richard the Lion-hearted." 

519. A succession of possessives is inelegant ; as, u Our minister's son's 
partner's brother-in-law's store." Substitute for one or more of the posses- 
sives o/"with the objective, or other words denoting the relation implied; 
as, " The store belonging to the brother-in-law of the partner of our min- 
ister's son." It would not do to change each of the possessives to of with 
the objective: "The store of the brother-in-law of the partner of the son 
of our minister." This repetition would be as inelegant as the former one ; 
variety is essential. 

520. The possessive case and of with the objective are not always 
equivalent. Thus, the Lord's day is Sunday ; but the day of the Lord is 
the day of judgment. We may speak of the flower of the field, but not of 
the field's flower. 

521. Arrangement. — The modifying substantive in 
the possessive, for the most part, immediately precedes 
the noun modified. 

522. The modifying substantive and the noun modified may be sepa- 
rated by an adjective or adjectives relating to the latter; as, "Nature's 
richest and most beautiful garb." 

They must not be separated by a clause; as, "Our friends', for friends 
they certainly are, attentions were most agreeable." Alter thus: " The at- 
tentions of our friends, for friends they certainly are, were most agreeable." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Under § 515. I have just read Josephus history and Isocrates' 
orations. 

[Corrected. — I have just read Josephus 's history and Isocrates's 
orations, Josephus must be changed to Josephus' s, and Isocrates 1 
to Lsocrates's, the possessive case, because they respectively modify 
the nouns history and orations by implying origin. — Still better 
(§119), the orations of Isocrates.] 

Xerxes expedition signally failed. — TTho's history of the Thirty 

the sign of the possessive appear ? How must such expressions as mayor of Troy's 
be parsed? How maj T such expressions be improved? 519, What is said of a 
succession of possessives ? What is said of the repetition of of with the objective ? 
How may such ineiegancies he corrected? 520. Give examples showing that the 
possessive case and of with the objective are not always equivalent. 521. What is 
the usual position of the modifying substantive ? 522. By what may the modify- 
ing substantive and the noun modified be separated ♦ By what must they not be 
separated ? 



190 FALSE SYNTAX. 

Years War is the best? Schillers. — Two months notice has been 
given to those tenants of your's. — There was as much pride in 
Diogenes' tub as in Platos well-spun garments. — Achilles mother 
dipped him in Styx 7 silent stream. — Whosoever's life is upright, 
peace and happiness shall be his'. — Do you attend St. Thomas' 
church ? No ; All Soul's. — The countess' dress was more magnifi- 
cent than the duchess' or any one else. — For goodness sake, employ 
your talents for your fellow-creatures benefit. — Here are Perkins 
Arithmetic, Brooks Ovid, Bobbins Xenophon, and Tacitus Life of 
Agricola. 

Under § 516. I have bought Andrews' and Stoddard's Latin 
Grammar, and Worcester and Webster's Dictionary. 

[Corrected. — I have bought Andreics and Stoddard's Latin 
Grammar, and Worcester's and Webster's Dictionary. The pos- 
sessive sign must be omitted after Andrews\ because but one 
grammar is referred to, produced by Andrews and Stoddard 
jointly. The possessive sign must be annexed to Worcester, be- 
cause two dictionaries are referred to, produced by Worcester and 
Webster separately.] 

A small stream separates my brother and sister farm. — It would 
be hard to decide which were the greater, Caesar or Napoleon's 
victories.- — Adam's and Eve's Creator is our Creator. — The Bank 
of England was established in William's and Mary's reign. — Who 
was Jacob's and Esau's father? — Who were Saul and David's 
father? — Whose store is that? It is either Lee's, Jacques' and 
Company, or Harris'. — France, England, and America's interests 
are all different. 

Under § 517. The emperor Augustus' reign. — Augustus the 
emperors reign. — Peter the Hermits eloquence. — Abernethy's the 
great physician's practice. — The papers are at my cousin's, the 
lawyer. — You will find it at Mason, the draper and tailor's on 
High Street. 

Under § 518. First make grammatical ; then change to the more 
elegant form, of with the objective: — Goliah's of Gath spear.— The 
Queen of the Sandwich Islands proclamation. — The colonel's of the 
regiment's orders. — The captain of the Erebus daughter. — I wish 
you would get somebody's else permission. 

Under § 519, 520. Mary's teacher's brother's child was taken 
sick to-day. — The house of the sister of the pilot of the Albany 



THE OBJECT. 191 

boat was robbed last night. — Eome's and Greece's glory, their 
heroes 1 exploits and their authors' genius, are still the brightest 
ornaments of the historic page. — The press's liberty is one of our 
chief bulwarks. — The intellect's march is now as rapid as ever. 

Under § 522. Good Queen Bess's, as she is commonly called, 
reign, was one of the most glorious in English history. — Such was 
this impostor's, if we may so characterize him, career. 



LESSON LXXII. 

OBJECT. -OBJECTIVE OF TIME. -FALSE SYNTAX. 



RULE IV.— The Object. 

523. A substantive that is the object of a verb or 
preposition is in the objective case. 

Examples. — Some read books simply for amusement. — Surveying the 
country on this side [of] the Yarrow, I found some charming situations. — 
It is past two o 1 clock [for on the clock]. — You are [by] five dollars richer 
than you were. — Do procure [for] her a situation. — I forbid you [to ap- 
pear in] my presence. — He was taught [in] philosophy by Newton. 

524. Do not introduce a preposition to govern the object of a transitive 
verb. " Consider of my offer." Consider is a transitive verb, since it 
affirms an action exerted on my offer ; the preposition of should therefore 
be omitted. 

525. Do not make an intransitive verb govern an objective. " He will 
soon repent him of his crime." The verb will repent is intransitive, since 
it affirms an action not exerted on any person or thing ; him should there- 
fore be omitted. "Beware the tempter." Beware is intransitive; the 
preposition of should therefore be introduced, to govern tempter. — " Be- 
ware of the tempter." 

526. A verb may have several objects, connected by a conjunction; as, 
Ci Cherish justice, charity, and truth. 11 

527. A verb may be followed by two objectives, one of which is its ob« 

523. Recite Rule IV., relating to the object. Give examples. 524. Point out 
the error in the »entence Consider of my offer. State the rule that applies. 
525. Point out the error in the sentence Beware the tempter. State the rule that 
applies. 626. How many objects may a verb have ? 527. By what may a verb bo 



192 THE OBJECT. 

ject and the other in apposition with this object ; as, " They call Walter 
Scott the wizard of the North." Walter Scott is in the objective, being 
the object of the verb call; wizard is in the objective, in apposition with 
Walter Scott. 

528. A verb is frequently followed by two objectives, the former of 
which is the object of a preposition understood, while the latter is the 
object of the verb; as, "We promised [to~] the best speaker a prize." 
•' Thrice they offered [to] Caesar a crown." " Will you buy [for] me a 
telescope ? " 

If the objects are transposed, the preposition is inserted; as, "We 
promised a prize to the best speaker." " Thrice they offered a crown to 
Caesar." "Will you buy a telescope for me?" 

When such constructions are thrown into the passive form, the object 
of the verb, and not that of the preposition, must be made the subject ; as, 
"A prize was promised to the best speaker," not "The best speaker was 
promised a prize." " A crown was thrice offered to Caesar," not " Caesar 
was thrice offered a crown." 

529. A verb in the passive voice can have no object. A substantive 
in the objective case, following such a verb, is generally governed by 
some preposition understood ; as, " Even this favor was denied [to] him. 11 
" He was expelled [from] the kingdom. 11 

530. Avoid making the same word the object of a verb and preposi- 
tion, or of two prepositions separated by intervening words. " They not 
only themselves vigorously prosecuted, but called on their allies to aid 
them in, the war. 11 Correct thus: "They not only themselves vigorously 
prosecuted the war, but called on their allies for aid." " I would have 
you pay deference to, and place confidence in, the friends that I leave you." 
Correct thus : "I would have you pay deference to the friends that I leave 
you, and place confidence in them." 

531. Arrangement. — The object generally stands 
after the governing word, but sometimes precedes it, 
particularly in solemn and poetical style. 

Examples. — I give you my peace. Solemn style. My peace I give 
unto you. 

followed ? 528. When two objectives follow a verb, of what are they sometimes 
respectively the objects? If the objects are transposed, what change is made in 
the construction ? When such constructions are thrown into the passive form, 
what must be made the subject of the verb ? 529. When an objective follows a 
verb in the passive voice, by what is it governed ? 530. Of what must a word not 
be made the object ? Give a sentence in which this rule is violated, and show how 
to correct it. 531. What is the position of the object ? 532. What class of words 



OBJECTIVE WITHOUT A PREPOSITION. 193 

He lives within the city's walls. Poetical. He lives the city's walls 
within. 

532. The relatives and interrogatives always precede their governing 
verb. TJiat and as always precede the governing preposition ; the other 
relatives and the interrogatives often do so in familiar style. We say, u The 
man that I met, that I spoke to." " The man whom I met, whom I spoke 
to, or to whom I spoke." " Whom did I meet?" "Whom did I speak 
to, or to whom did I speak ? " 

RULE V. — Objective without a Preposition. 

533. A modifying substantive, denoting time, direc- 
tion, extent, quantity, or value, often stands in the ob- 
jective case without a preposition. 

Examples. — I am twenty years old, this very day. — Three times he 
rose. — A sick man always wants to go home. — She rode a mile. — A well 
fifty feet deep. — This wheat will measure fifty bushels, and will weigh sixty 
pounds to the bushel. — He charged me a dollar for this book. 

In the examples just given, no preposition can be supplied to govern 
the objectives in italics. But in many cases prepositions are used or un- 
derstood, and then Rule IV. applies. " On Monday last he started for 
the south" "Our western prairies often extend for miles." " A cubic 
foot of gold • would be [by] many pounds heavier than a cubic foot of 
coal." 

534. To is omitted before home, north, south, &c, when not modified 
by other words, but expressed when they are modified: as, "He went 
home, north, south ; " but, " He went to his home, to the north, to the 
far-distant south." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Under § 523. Who should I trust, if not he who I have lived 
with for years? 

[Corrected. — Whom should I trust, if not him whom I have 
lived with for years ? Who must be changed to whom, he to him, 
and who to whom, to be in the objective case ; the first whom 

always precede their governing verb ? What words always precede their govern- 
ing preposition? What words often do so? 533. Recite Rule V., relating to a 
modifying substantive denoting time, &c. Give examples, and state what each 
objective denotes. 534. Give the rule relating to the preposition to before hornet 
north, south, &c. 

9 



191 FALSE SYNTAX. 

being the object of the verb should trust, him of should trust 
understood, and the second whom of the preposition with.] 

I love ye. — Let all the world give homage, and they praise 
that never praised before.— Who did Dr. Jones appoint as his 
executors ? — We will meet you and he this evening. — Let who- 
ever you wish, be present. — I mentioned those that I had seen, 
and she among the rest. — Between you and I, there is something 
wrong in that family. —Despite ye all, I will succeed. — We have 
not had many Nero's in modern times. — Take care who you give 
that letter to. — What has become of the Washingtons' and Frank- 
lin's ? — Let the scholar confine himself to his studies, and he that 
wishes to be safe avoid the vortex of politics. — Notwithstanding 
the persuasions of my friends and she whom I loved more than 
they all, I determined to return. 

"Under § 524. I do not recollect of any parallel case in his- 
tory. — He will commence with his studies next week. — No per- 
son that respects himself can allow of such liberties. — Why will 
men pursue after pleasure ? — Man wants for little here below. — 
She will not permit of any interference. — We have tried in vain 
to discover about his plans. 

Under § 525. Fare thee well. — Eetire thee into the drawing- 
room. — We should beware us of evil practices. — I fear me there 
are spies abroad. — Sit thee down and rest thee here. 

Under § 528. Washington was offered kingly power. — It 
seems as if I were grudged even the food I eat. — When a visitor 
comes in, he should be handed a book. — I was told a very sin- 
gular story. — He was allowed a pension in consequence of his 
services. 

Under § 530. The nutmeg tree is a native of, and is still largely 
cultivated in, the Moluccas. — We should not only respect and obey, 
but try to pay every attention to, our parents. — The natives of 
Iceland collect great quantities of, and realize quite a profit by 
exporting, eider-down. 

Under § 533. A man of three-score years old. 

[ Corrected. — A man three-score years old. Of must be omitted, 
because years, being the objective of time, needs no prepo« 
eition.] 

Dig a pit of six feet deep. — If it rains on to-morrow, I shall 
want to return to home without delay. — I met a lady of from 



SUBSTANTIVES IN APPOSITION. 195 

twenty to thirty years of age. — For three times the struggle was 
renewed. — For these I will charge you at a dollar a dozen. 



LESSON LXXIII. 

SUBSTANTIVES IN APPO S I TION. -F ALSE SYNTAX. 



RULE VI. — Substantives in Apposition. 

535. One substantive joined to another denoting the 
same person or thing, is in the same case. 

Examples. — The fables of iEsop, a Phrygian slave. — TTolsey, the 
butcher's son % rose to be a cardinal. — TVolsey the cardinal* s career termi- 
nated unfortunately. — Homer wrote two great works, the Iliad and the 
Odyssey. — I heard it myself. — I Daniel saw a vision. — Ye generation of 
vipers. — Father Matthew has done much for temperance in Ireland. — The 
evangelist John was born in Bethsaida, 

The leading substantive generally precedes the other, but not always, 
as will be seen by the last two examples. 

536. Substantives in apposition are frequently introduced by the words 
as, or, that is, namely (viz.), to wit. "France has always looked upon 
England as her enemy [in apposition with England]" " The czar, or 
emperor, of Russia, is now at Moscow." "The Helvetian republic, that is 
Switzerland, has given many proofs of its attachment to liberty."' " Three 
children of Henry VIII. reigned after him; namely [viz., to wit] Edward 
VI., Mary, and Elizabeth." 

537. A substantive repeated for emphasis often stands in apposition 
with the same word previously used; as, "They are tyrants, unfeeling 
tyrants, tyrants from whose tender mercies nothing is to be hoped." 

538. A noun may be put in apposition with a clause or member of 
a sentence ; as, " Pocahontas informed the colonists of the intended 
massacre, — a favor that was not soon forgotten." As the clause or 
member has no case, the case of the noun in apposition is not thus 

535. Recite Rule VI. , relating to substantives in apposition. Give examples, 
and state with what each substantive that illustrates the rule is in apposition. 
How does the apposition substantive generally stand ? 636. By what are substan- 
tives in apposition frequently introduced ? 537. With what does a substantive 
repeated for emphasis often stand in apposition ? 538. "With what, besides a sub- 
btantive, may a noun be put in apposition ? In such constructions, what is the 



196 SUBSTANTIVES IN APPOSITION. 

settled ; it may be regarded as in the nominative independent, according 
to Rule II. 

539. A noun in apposition with a plural substantive, or with two or 
more singular substantives taken together, must be in the plural; as, " We 
must not make ourselves glutto?is." " Washington and Adams, the first 
presidents. 11 

540. The pronouns all, these, both, and such, are put in apposition 
with more than one singular substantive taken together; as, " Hun, Goth, 
and Vandal, — all were there." u Scipio and Hannibal were both great 
generals." 

541. The singular pronoun each is put in apposition with a plural sub- 
stantive ; as, " They looked out each for himself." 

542. In the expressions each other (properly applied to two) and one 
another (to more than two), each and one are in apposition with some pre- 
ceding substantive. u Be ye loving to one another : " one is in the nomi- 
native case, in apposition with ye ; another is in the objective, after the 
preposition to, — be ye loving, one to another.-—" Righteousness and Peace 
have kissed each other : " each is in the nominative, in apposition with 
Righteousness and Peace ; other is the object of have kissed. — " I give you 
to each other : " each is in the objective, in apposition with you ; other is 
also in the objective after to. 

543. There is no apposition in the following cases, even though the 
substantives refer to the same thing : — 

1. When one substantive is in the subject and the other in the predi- 
cate ; as, " Prussia is a kingdom." Kingdom is in the nominative after 
the verb, according to Rule VII. 

2. When of is introduced, to govern the latter substantive ; as, " The 
kingdom of Prussia." 

3. Between the parts of a complex proper noun (which should be taken 
together in parsing) ; as, Cape Horn, the Ural River, Gilbert Motier de 
La Fayette. 

4. Between the relative and its antecedent. The relation subsisting 
between these is pointed out in Rule VIII. 

544. When the substantives are in the possessive case, the sign of the 

case of the noun in apposition ? 539. When must the apposition noun be put in 
the plural ? 540. With what are the pronouns all, these, both, and such put in ap- 
position ? 541. With what is each put in apposition ? 542. In the expressions each 
other and one another, how are each and one used ? Parse one and another in the 
sentence Be ye loving one to another. Parse each and other in the sentence Right- 
eousness and Peace have kissed each other. 543. Specify the four cases in which 
there is no apposition, 544. When the substantives are in the possessive cose. 
Which takes the sign of the possessive ? 



FALSE SYNTAX 197 

possessive is used but once, with the one nearest to the noun modified ; 
as, "His duties as editor are very arduous." "Leave it at the doctor's 
[office], my friend on Broadway." "Take this prescription to Hill, the 
apothecary *s [shop]." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

TTndee § 535. I love the generous man, he whose great heart 
Wide opens to enfold a fellow man. 

[Corrected. — I love the generous man, him whose great heart, 
&c. He must be changed to him, to be in the objective case, be- 
cause it is in apposition with the objective man.] 

Harvey, him who discovered the circulation of the blood, 
flourished in the time of King Charles I. — Milton visited Galileo 
in prison, he who made so many discoveries in Natural Philoso- 
phy. — "Will you thus requite me, ungrateful men — I who have 
toiled for you — I who have lost all but life in your defence ? — ■ 
Captain Grant, he that commanded the Yixen, I used, to count 
among my most intimate friends. — He loves you well, all ye that 
hear my words. — Have you read any of the works of Hannah 
More, she who was so popular at the commencement of the pres- 
ent century ? 



LESSON LXXIV. 

SUBSTANTIVES AFTER VERBS. — FALSE SYNTAX. 



RULE VII. — Substantives after Verbs. 

545. A verb that has no object takes the same case 
after as before it, when both words refer to the same 
person or thing. 

Examples. — Prussia is a kingdom [same case as Prussia, — nomina- 
tive]. — I know Prussia ^o be a kingdom [same case as Prussia, — objec- 
tive]. — Wlio was Pericles ? [ Who is in the same case as Pericles, — nomi- 
native.] — It was she. — Did you know it to be her ? 

546. Rule VII. refers to intransitive verbs of existence, such as be, be* 

545. Recite Rule VII,, relating to substantives used after verbs. Give exam, 
pies, and point out the substantive before and after the verb in each. 646. What 



198 PREDICATE SUBSTANTIVE. 

come, turn out; also, to the transitive verbs call, name, make, appoint, 
consider, regard, and the like, in the passive voice. " He has been, be- 
come, president." u He has been called, ?nade, appointed, elected, chosen, 
president." 

547. The words after and before, as used in this rule, refer to the 
grammatical, and not to the actual, order. In most cases, the two corre- 
spond ; but the subject of the verb is always to be regarded as before it, 
and the other substantive as after it, no matter what position they may 
actually occupy. The grammatical order may be reversed ; as, " Who art 
thou ? " TJiou is the subject or nominative before the verb ; who is in the 
nominative after it. — Both substantives may precede the verb ; as, " I know 
not what he is called." — Both substantives may follow the verb; as, "Are 
you a Frenchman ? " 

548. The substantive before the verb is sometimes omitted ; as, " [For 
a man] To become a profound scholar requires long and patient study." 
Scholar is in the objective after to become, because man understood is in 
the objective before it. 

549. The substantive before the verb may be a clause. As this clause 
is the subject of the verb, it stands in the relation of the nominative case, 
and the substantive after the verb is also in the nominative. " To write 
well is a great accomplishment [nom.]." " Why he did it is a mystery 
[nom.] to me." 

550. Rule VII., of course, applies to participles. "By becoming a 
Quaker, Penn incurred his father's anger." Penn, to which the parti- 
ciple becoming relates, is in the nominative case before it, and Quaker is 
therefore in the nominative after it. 

551. A participle may be used independently. A noun standing after 
a participle thus used, has no substantive before it with which to agree, 
and, being used independently, is in the nominative case. " Does not the 
mind revolt at the thought of being a murderer ? " " The crime of being 
a young man is too atrocious to be forgiven." Murderer in the first ex- 
ample, and man in the second, having no substantive before the par- 
ticiple being with which to agree in case, are in the nominative inde- 
pendent. 

552. Exception to Kule VII.—; JVhen the substan- 

verbs are referred to in this rule ? 547. What is the meaning of the words after 
and before in this rule ? How does the grammatical order compare with the actual 
order ? Give examples in which they differ. 548. Which substantive is some- 
times omitted ? 549. What may the substantive before the verb be ? In what 
case, then, is the substantive after the verb? 550. To what, of course, does Rule 
VII. apply ? Give an example. 551. In what case is a substantive after a par- 
ticiple used independently? 552. State the exception to Rule VII. What do 



PREDICATE SUBSTANTIVE. 199 

tive before the participle is in the possessive case, the 
substantive after it is not put in the possessive, but in 
the nominative ; as, " The news of my having turned 
soldier [not soldier's] soon reached the village." " His 
being a Frenchman has nothing to do with the matter." 
Soldier and Frenchman may here be regarded as in 
the nominative independent. 

Some grammarians teach that the substantive thus used after a participle 
is in the possessive case, with the sign of the possessive omitted. But, when 
a pronoun stands in this construction, it is unmistakably in the nominative 
and not in the possessive ; as, " I had no suspicion of its being they [not 
their]." It is fair to conclude that a noun in the same construction is in 
the nominative also. 

Others condemn this construction altogether and would substitute an 
equivalent clause ; as, " The news that I had turned soldier" &c. " The 
fact that he is a Frenchman" &c. " I had no suspicion that it tvas they" 
As, however, the construction in question is employed by good writers and 
often expresses the idea more neatly than any other, there is no reason 
why it should not be used. The substantive after the participle simply 
constitutes an exception to Rule VII., and is to be parsed as in the nomi- 
native independent. 

553. This rule and the remarks under it are further illustrated in the 
following 

PARSING EXERCISE. 

No carpet knight was he. — What is a noun ? — Be followers of 
virtue. — To be called a great man is quite different from really 
being one. — How the western continent became peopled, is still 
an unsettled question. — Who would incur the imputation of being 
a malicious slanderer ? — Nobody likes the idea of being called a 
fop. — One critic approves of what is called mere bombast by an- 
other. — On account of there being but few present, the lecture 
was postponed. — Her being an heiress is certainly nothing against 
her. — Bentley has the reputation of being the best Greek scholar 
that England ever produced. 

some grammarians teach respecting this construction ? What objection is there to 
this ? What do others say of this construction ? Is there any good reason for 
condemning it ? 



200 PREDICATE SUBSTANTIVE. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Under § 545. Did you suppose it was me ? 

[ Corrected, — Did you suppose it was If Me must bo changed 
to 7, to be in the nominative after the verb was, it being in the 
nominative before it.] 

Did you suppose it to be I? — Did you think that little ill-formed 
Man was me ? — If I were you or her, I would put a stop to such 
proceedings. — You know not whom he may turn out to be. — He 
is not the person whom he pretended to be, or who you supposed 
him to be. — It was my brother that you saw, not me. — It makes 
no difference whom or where you are, always be polite. — Why 
did you say it was him ? — The Missouri and the Mississippi are the 
longest rivers' of ^orth America. 

Under § 551. I had no idea of its being him. 

[Corrected. — I had no idea of its being he. Him must be 
changed to he, the nominative case, because it is used independ- 
ently.] 

The possibility of their turning soldiers' never occurred to me. 
— I have no doubt of its being her. — They entertained no suspi- 
cion of its being me. — We had no hope of their becoming such 
scholars'. 



LESSON LXXV. 

PRONOUNS. -FALSE SYNTAX. 

554. The case of a pronoun is determined by the 
rules already given. These suffice for parsing ; but, to 
avoid errors in speaking and writing, we must look to 
other things also as well as case. 

555. A pronoun takes the person, number, and gen- 
der (when it has gender), of the substantive for which 
it stands. 

" Franklin loved his country, Victoria loves her country, the Swiss love 
their country, we love our country." Here the pronoun changes first from 

665. What determines the person, number^ and gender of a pronoun ? Illufi* 



SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS. 201 

masculine to feminine [his to her], then from singular to plural [her to 
their], then from third to first person [their to our], in consequence of 
similar changes in the substantive for which it stands. 

556. Exception. — Sometimes a pronoun, in stead of 
agreeing in number with the word for which it stands, 
agrees rather with the idea conveyed ; as, " Israel had 
pitched their tents in the desert." Here Israel is sin- 
gular, but it means the Israelites, and hence the pronoun 
referring to it is put in the plural. 

" I have ten dollars, and shall put it in the Savings' Bank to-morrow." 
If I mean ten single dollars or separate coins, I should say "put them in 
the Savings' Bank ; " but otherwise, though dollars is plural, one amount 
is implied, and the pronoun, agreeing with the idea conveyed, stands in 
the singular. 

557. Many a is always used with a singular noun, as many a time, 
many an idle word ; but the idea conveyed is plural. A pronoun standing 
for a noun preceded by many a, in the same member, agrees with the noun 
in the singular, but in & following member agrees with the idea conveyed 
and is plural. " During this persecution, many a martyr shed his blood ; 
and their names are still embalmed in the memory of the church." 

558. A pronoun referring to a collective noun is put 
in the singular when the individuals referred to are 
taken as one whole, but in the plural when they are 
taken separately ; as, " Here the little band lost some 
of its best members." " The whole band eagerly 
plunged into the river to drink their fill." 

559. The collective nouns few, many, hundred, thousand, &c., preceded 
by the article a, always take a pronoun in the plural ; as, u A few lost their 
lives ; a great many had their limbs broken." 

560. A pronoun standing for two or more singular 
substantives connected by and expressed or understood, 

trate this. 556. With what does a pronoun sometimes agree, in stead of the word 
for which it stands ? Give examples. 557. With what number is many a always 
used ? In what number is a pronoun that stands for a noun preceded by many a? 
558. In what number is a pronoun put, that refers to a collective noun ? 559. What 
collective nouns always take a pronoun in the plural ? 560. In what number is a 
pronoun that stands for two or more singular substantives connected by and f 

9* 



202 SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS. 

must be in the plural ; as, " Martha and Mary were 
weeping for their brother Lazarus." "Faith, hope, 
charity, had left their mark on his character." 

561. But the pronoun must be put in the singular, 

1. When the substantives for which it stands are but different name* 
for the same person or thing ; as, " This great physician and surgeon could 
heal others; himself he could not heal." 

2. When the substantives are limited by each, every, or wo; as, "Everj 
waving tree and every rippling brook has its lessons for the thoughtful 
mind." 

562. Singular substantives connected by and also, and too, and not, 
but, if not, or as well as, are taken separately, and have a pronoun in the 
singular; as, u Brazil, and India also, is noted for invaluable diamonds." 
" Not only Wellington, but Nelson, greatly distinguished himself in this 
war." " The lord, as well as the beggar, has his troubles." 

563. A plural pronoun referring to substantives of 
different persons is put in the first person in preference 
to the second, and the second in preference to the third ; 
as, " You and he and I will prepare our lessons, if no- 
body else does.' 5 " You and he will not disobey your 
mother." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Under § 555. There is such a noise that one can not collect 
their thoughts. 

[Corrected. — There is such a noise that one can not collect his 
thoughts. Their must be changed to his, the singular number, 
because one, the substantive to which it refers, is singular.] 

Ever y-body ought to have regard to the dictates of their own 
conscience. — ISTo one can tell what trials may await them to-mor- 
row. — A cow gives every token of distress when its calf is taken 
from it. — Any one can secure the reputation of being a good critic, 
if they will find fault with every thing and every-body. — Let & 

561. In what two cases must the pronoun he put in the singular ? 562. What con- 
nectives show that singular substantives are taken separately ? In what number 
must a pronoun be, that refers to singular substantives so connected ? 563. What 
is the rule for the person of a plural pronoun referring to substantives of different 
persons ? 



FALSE SYNTAX. 203 

young man be temperate, industrious, and upright, and people will 
be sure to respect and trust them. — When the buffalo is wounded, 
they turn furiously on their pursuer, and sometimes trample him 
to death. — They carved cherubim out of Parian marble, and placed 
it over the shrine. 

I have lost the scissors. Have you seen it ? — That duck has 
lamed his right foot. — Every animal, however small, has some 
weapon with which they can defend themselves. — The tongs should 
always be kept in its place. — She saves her wood-ashes, and sells 
it to a soap-maker. — Thrifty men, when they have received their 
wages, do not spend it for liquor. — We sent for the regalia, but the 
manufacturer said that he had not finished it. — As I was looking 
at the heifer, he suddenly started off and ran down the lane. — 
Each horseman put their lance in rest. 

Under § 557, 558. Many a flower is born to blush unseen, and 
waste their sweetness on the desert air. — Many a book is published, 
that is positively injurious ; if it were committed to the flames, it 
would be a blessing to the community. — No wonder that many a 
poet has sung the name of Washington and immortalized it in their 
noblest strains. — The jury separated, to get its dinner. — The court 
has rendered their decision. — The crew were next called on deck, 
to receive its orders. 

Under § 560. Hard and soft soap differ from each other in the 
materials that enter into its composition. — Shem, Ham, and 
Japhet, went into the ark with his father Noah. — My son, my 
daughter, do not distress yourself. — Adversity, affliction, tempta- 
tion, ought we not to be ready for it all? — I have tried blue and 
red ink, but it does not write so well as black. 

Under § 561. The druggist and apothecary on the corner will 
hereafter close their store on Sunday. — My friend and benefactor, 
do not withdraw yourselves from my embrace. — Your son and heir 
would do well to alter their ways. — No lord, no king, can enjoy 
themselves more than I. — Each of the Scipios and each of the 
Catos had their admirers. 

Under § 562. Eoger Williams, and Calvert also, showed the 
liberality of their views by allowing freedom of conscience in relig- 
ious matters. — It was Cleopatra, and not Semiramis, that killed 
themselves by the bite of an asp. — Powhatan, as well as Pocahon- 
tas, now did all in their power to conciliate the colonists. 



204 SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS. 

Under § 563. I told both her and you to see the superintendent 
and satisfy themselves. — May sister Fanny and I go to her aunt's 
this afternoon ? — I must have met James and you, but I did not 
recognize either of them. 



LESSON LXXVI. 

PRONOUNS (CONTINUED).— FALSE SYNTAX. 

564. A pronoun standing for two or more singular 
substantives connected by or or nor, must be in the 
singular; as, " Neither Venice nor Genoa retains the 
proud position it once held." 

565. But if one of the substantives is plural, it is placed last, and the 
pronoun is made plural ; as, " Neither Venice nor the States of the Church 
retain the proud position they once held." 

566. If the substantives are of different persons, the pronoun must be 
used in the proper person with each ; or the sentence must be so altered 
that the pronoun may be omitted. " Neither James nor I will allow our 
children to grow up in ignorance " Wrong, because our is plural. As 
there is no pronoun applicable to both James (which is third person) and / 
(which is Jlrst\ use a separate pronoun for each: " James will not allow 
his children to grow up in ignorance, nor will I mine" — " Either my wife 
or I will come for our children on Tuesday." The meaning here prevents 
us from correcting as in the last case (" Either my wife will come for her 
children, or I for mine"), as the children belong to us jointly. We must 
therefore get rid of the pronoun altogether : " Either my wife or I will 
come for the children on Tuesday." 

567. When the substantives are of the third person singular, but of dif- 
ferent genders, as the personal pronoun is the same in the plural for both 
genders, but not in the singular, there is a tendency to use the plural ; as, 
44 Neither Alfred nor Ellen were perfect in their lessons." " An author or 



564. In what number is a pronoun that stands for two or more singular sub- 
etantives connected by or or nor? 565. If one of the substantives is plural, what 
is the rule ? 566. If the substantives are of different persons, what is said of the 
pronoun ? Give examples of the two modes of correction suggested. 567. When 
the substantives are of the third person singular, but of different genders, what 
tendency is there ? What is the rule for the pronoun in this case ? What substi« 



SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS. 205 

authoress should not think that the public are bound to receive them with 
favor." 

These sentences are wrong. Substantives connected by or or nor are 
taken separately and require a singular pronoun. Correct by using the 
pronoun in the proper gender with each; as, " Neither was Alfred perfect 
in his lessons, nor Ellen in hers." Or, when it can be done, use a term of 
common gender that will embrace both the substantives, and let the pro- 
noun agree with it in the masculine in preference ; as, " A writer should 
not think that the public are bound to receive him with favor." 

568. A noun denoting an inanimate object personified (§ 98) has gen- 
der, and a pronoun standing for such a noun must agree with it in gender ; 
as, u Famine, with his wan cheeks, gloats over his victims." u Plenty 
trips along, scattering her fruits as she goes." 

569. In a given sentence, pronouns referring to the same substantive 
must be of the same number and the same form. " Tlwu hast always repaid 
me with ingratitude, and do you now ask a greater favor than ever ? " 
Wrong, because in the second member the pronoun is changed to the 
plural. Correct thus : " and dost thou now ask," &c. " You have put 
your hands to the plough, and will ye now draw back ? " Wrong, because 
in the second member the form of the pronoun is changed. Correct thus: 
44 and will you now draw back ? " 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Uxder § 564. If Seth or Methusaleh grew in wisdom as they 
grew in years, what knowledge they must finally have attained ! 

[Corrected. — If Seth or Methusaleh grew in wisdom as he grew 
in years, what knowledge he must finally have attained ! They 
must be changed to he, because it stands for the singular substan- 
tives Seth and Methusaleh, connected by or.] 

Walter Jones or his brother William just passed with their face 
tied up, as if they had met with an accident. — If you want a good 
house or farm, I can tell you where to find them. — Neither talent 
nor wealth should be laid away in a napkin, by those who are 
fortunate enough to possess them. — We have no evidence in their 
public acts, that either Charles L or Charles II. deemed it worth 
their while to consult the happiness of their subjects. — Neither 

tution is suggested for the substantives ? 568. What is said of a pronoun standing 
for the name of an inanimate object personified ? 569. "What rule is laid down for 
pronouns referring to the same substantive in a given sentence If How is this rule 
violated in the first example ? How, in the second ? 



206 FALSE SYNTAX. 

Plato nor Aristotle thought it proper to make known to the world 
at large those more important doctrines which they freely taught 
their followers. — Peace can not he restored till either Austria or 
Hungary shall surrender their claims. — We should not envy our 
neighbor health, wealth, or any other blessing, but, on the con- 
trary, should feel glad that he possesses them, even though they 
be denied to us. 

Under § 565. If you want a good house or desirable lots, I can 
tell you where to find it. — Neither talent nor riches should be laid 
away in a napkin, by those who are fortunate enough to possess 
it. — Neither Plato nor the other ancient philosophers thought ifc 
proper to make known to the world at large those more important 
doctrines which he freely taught his followers. — Peace can not be 
restored till either the Hungarians or Austria shall surrender its 
claims. 

Under § 566. Neither you nor any honorable man ought to be 
ashamed to ask the forgiveness of your friend, when you have 
wronged him. — Thou or I must abandon his claims. — Neither he 
nor you promised your wives to return before to-morrow. — Here 
is an opportunity for you or me to distinguish ourselves [to gain 
distinction], — Neither he nor you should promise yourselves suc- 
cess in such a cause. 

Under § 567. A true-hearted man or woman will never insult 
their inferiors. — Neither the king nor the queen seems to concern 
themselves much about the welfare of their subjects. — No boy or 
girl should disobey their parents. — Every gentleman and lady 
should remember that they are responsible for the example they 
set to the world. — If you see my brother or sister, tell them I will 
not be home to-night. 

Under § 568. Spring trips along, scattering its blossoms as it 
goes. — The Earth is ever a bounteous mother to its children. — 
Time mows down rich and poor alike with its relentless scythe. — 
Hope breathes many a delightful promise into the ears of its 
votaries. — How many are wooed to destruction by Pleasure with 
its syren songs ! — There is no orator so persuasive as Fashion; it 
has but to open its lips, and nobody thinks of gainsaying its words. 

Under § 569. Eame you know to be a dream ; wilt thou then 
barter thy soul for it ? — Let falsehood be a stranger to your lips, a 
Stranger to thy heart. — Listen ye men of Kome, you who proudly 



SYNTAX OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 207 

call Romulus your father. — Fools may your scorn, but not thy envy 
raise. 



LESSON LXXVII. 

RELATIVE PRONOUNS. — FALSE SYNTAX. 



RULE VIII.— Relatives. 

570. A relative agrees with its antecedent in person 
and number. 

A relative does not agree with its antecedent in case. This depends on 
its relation to some word or words in its own clause. Several of the re- 
marks in the last two lessons apply to relatives, as will be seen in the 
following 

Examples ofRuleVIIL — I who [1st, singular, agreeing with /] speak. 
—Thou who [2nd, sing.] speakest. — He who [3rd, sing.] speaks. — We who 
[1st, plural] speak. — You who [2nd, plu.] speak. — They who [3rd, plu.] 
speak. — Many a man that [3rd, sing.] passes for a hero is really a coward. 
— Beaumont and Fletcher, who [plural, agreeing with two singular antece- 
dents connected by and] are always named together, wrote some fine lyrics. 
— This great physician and surgeon, who [sing., as but one person is de- 
noted by physician and surgeon] could heal others, could not heal himself. 
— Every tree and plant that [sing., agreeing with antecedents preceded by 
every] blossoms, testifies to the goodness of our Creator. — You and he and 
I, who [1st person preferred] know our lessons, will not be kept in. 

571. When there are two or more substantives, either of which, as far 
as the sense is concerned, may be the antecedent, the relative agrees with 
the nearest ; as, "I am the party that [3rd, sing., agreeing vf'ith. party, not 
/] is to blame." " It is I that [1st, sing., agreeing with I, not it] am to 
blame." 

572. If the antecedent is a clause, the relative is in the third person, 
singular; if two or more clauses, in the third, plural. u He is witty, which 

570. Recite Rule VIII. , referring to relatives. On what does the case of a 
relative depend ? Give examples of the rule, and name the antecedent in each 
case. 571. When there are two or more substantives, either of which, as far as 
the sense is concerned, may be the antecedent, with which does the relative agree? 
672. In what person and number is the relative, if the antecedent is a clause ? If 



208 SYNTAX OF RELATIVES. 

[3rd, sing.] I regard as no great advantage." " Whether the classics dis- 
cipline the mind, and whether an acquaintance with them is of any practical 
benefit in life, which [3rd, plural] are both important questions, every 
scholar must decide for himself." 

573. The relative connects its clause with the leading part of the sen- 
tence. A conjunction, therefore, should not be used before a relative, 
unless there are two or more relative clauses to be connected. u Dr. 
^Johnson, the author of the Dictionary, who [not and who] wrote the 
i* Lives of the Poets,' flourished in the reign of George II. and George III." 
But, if there are two relative clauses, and maybe used; as, " Dr. Johnson, 
who wrote the Dictionary and whose ' Lives of the Poets ' has been much 
admired, ranks high as a critic." 

574. A sentence must not commence with a relative referring to an 
antecedent in a previous sentence. Use this or these instead. " This 
[not which] having been done, we again set sail." 

575. Who, which, that. — Who, as already stated, 
relates to persons, or animals and things personified ; 
which, to animals and things only. 

576. That is equally applicable to persons, animals, 
and things. It must be used in stead of who or 
which, 

1. When both persons and things are referred to ; 
as, " Look at the artists and master-pieces that ancient 
Greece produced." Here neither who nor which would 
be applicable to both the antecedents. 

2. When who is the antecedent, to prevent repe- 
tition ; as, " Who that hateth his brother can love 
God?" 

3. After a superlative ; as, " Hannibal was the dead- 
liest enemy that Rome ever had." 

577. That is also generally preferred to who or which, 1. After same, 
all, and the adjectives very and no; as, " Washington was the very man 

the antecedent consists of two or more clauses? 573. When only may a conjunc- 
tion be used before a relative ? Why is this ? 574. With what must a sentence 
not commence ? 575. To what does who relate ? Which! That? 576. What an-* 
tecedents require the use of that in stead of who or which 7 After what degree 
must that be used ? 577. In what three cases is that generally preferred to who or 



SYNTAX OF RELATIVES. 209 

that the colonies needed." 2. When the antecedent follows it is y it was, 
&c. ; as, "It was I that knocked." 3. When the antecedent is a collective 
noun; as, u The committee that was appointed immediately opened a sub- 
scription." 

578. That implies a closer connection with the antecedent than who or 
which. It is therefore generally used when the relative clause restricts 
and is essential to the meaning to be conveyed. But it must not be used 
when the relative clause merely states some additional fact, and can be 
left out without injury to the sense. Thus : — u A man that [restrictive] 
possessed great eloquence could lead the Athenians at his will." " Pericles, 
who [not that, because additive] possessed great eloquence, could lead the 
Athenians at his will." 

579. When the relative refers to the antecedent simply as a name or 
character, which must be used, not who or that ; as, u Such were the trials 
of Job, which has come to be regarded as another name for patience." 
" Solomon appears to the greatest advantage as a judge, which he was 
even to the meanest of his subjects." 

580. Position. — The relative, with its clause, should 
stand immediately after its antecedent ; as, " Those 
who break the law deserve punishment," not " Those 
deserve punishment who break the law." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Under § 573, 574. The elephant, the largest of quadrupeds, 
and which sometimes attains the height of fifteen feet, can easily 
draw a load that six horses can not move. — The whig candidate 
for the presidency was Taylor, the hero of Buena Yista, and who 
was elected hy a small majority. Who dying "before his term of 
office expired, Fillmore became president. — In February, 1848, a 
mechanic, digging a mill-race for Captain Sutter, a Swiss, and who 
had settled in the valley of the Sacramento, discovered among the 
sand some particles of gold. Which news having spread, thou- 
sands at once flocked to California from the Atlantic states. 

Under § 576. There were not cars enough to transport the 
passengers and baggage which had arrived at this point. — The 

which? 578. Which relative implies the closest connection with the antecedent ? 
When, therefore, is that generally used ? When must it not he used? 579. When 
must which be used, and not who or that 7 580. What is the proper position fof 
the relative and its clause t 



210 FALSE SYNTAX. 

most valuable article which is produced by insects, is silk. — 
Who, I ask, who looks upon the heavens studded with stars, can 
doubt that there is a God ? — Boas are the largest serpents which 
are known. — I could not help admiring the good-natured country- 
people and the baskets of splendid fruit, with which the market 
was filled. 

Under § 577. I am the same man which I was ; it is you who 
have altered. — There is no man who sinneth not. — He who does 
all which he can, should be commended, though it be but little. — 
Nations which do not foster education can not hope to prosper. — 
Birds which live on animal food are called carnivorous. — Birds of 
paradise, that are much prized for their beautiful plumage, are 
found chiefly in New Guinea. — The family whom I visited, can not 
be the same which you refer to. 

Undee § 580. He is a common-place man, that has no friends 
and no enemies. — A man should first count the cost, who is about 
to build a house. — Alfred freed England from the Danes, who 
showed as much courage in war as wisdom in peace. — Even those 
philosophers fell far short of modern enlightenment, who ad- 
vanced furthest in the search for wisdom in ancient times. — Those 
evil-disposed persons should be driven from society, who take 
pleasure in slandering their neighbors. — On this voyage, the cap- 
tain treated the sailors very harshly, who had never been known 
to do so before. 



LESSON LXXVIII. 

PRONOUNS (CONTINUED). — FALSE SYNTAX. 

581. When two or more relative clauses referring to 
the same antecedent are connected by a conjunction, 
the same relative must be used ; as, " No man that 
loves his family, or that [not who] regards his own 
happiness, will give way to intemperance." 

But, when one of the clauses is restrictive and the other not, that is 

581. What rule is laid down respecting two or more relative clauses referring 
to the same antecedent ? When one of the clauses is restrictive and the other 



SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS. 211 

used in the restrictive clause, which is placed first, and who or which 
without a conjunction in the other; as, "The part that was left, which 
was more valuable in appearance than in reality, was given to Adher- 
bal." 

582. Do not use the adverb where for in which, or 
whence for from which, unless place is referred to lit* 
erally. 

We say, " Travellers are in doubt as to the spot where Palmyra once 
stood." " The harbor whence we sailed was gay with flags." But, " They 
presented a document in which [not where] their grievances were set 
forth." "The premises from which [not whence] they drew these conclu- 
sions, were false." 

583. Do not omit a preposition and relative, con- 
necting parts of a sentence ; as, " The winter the Pil- 
grims landed, was remarkable for its severity." Sup- 
ply in which after winter. 

584. Do not make a pronoun stand for an adjective 
or a finite verb. 

This rule is violated in the following sentences : — "Never be ungrate- 
ful, for this is one of the most heartless of sins." " He declared that he 
would not retreat, which would be equivalent to giving up the cause as 
lost." Correct thus : — " Never be ungrateful, for ingratitude is one of the 
most heartless of sins." " He declared that he would not retreat, for that 
to do so would be equivalent to giving up the cause as lost." 

585. Do not use the pronoun them for the adjective 
those, or the pronoun what for the conjunction that. 
" I will never believe but what [that] you might have 
saved them [those'] trees." 

586. Pronouns must be so used that there may be 
no doubt for what they stand. Do not, therefore, make 

not, what is the rule ? 582. When only may where be used for in which, and 
whence for from which ? 583. What must not be omitted ? 584. For what must a 
pronoun not be made to stand? Give examples of the violation of this rule, and 
the modes of correction. 585. For what must them and what not be used? 
586. What is essential in the use of pronouns ? What rule is laid down respect- 
ing personal pronouns ? Give examples of the violation of this rule, and show how 



212 SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS. 

the same personal pronoun represent different persons 
or things in the same sentence. 

Errors of this kind are frequent, and may be corrected in different 
ways. "The farmer told the lawyer that his ox had gored his horse/ 
Say ' Your ox has gored my horse J or * My ox has gored your horse,' as 
the case may be. u Pope wrote to Addison that he was aware of his secret 
efforts to injure his reputation." Say of the secret efforts of the latter, 
<&c. " A man does not always appreciate his friend's kindness, when he 
sacrifices his comfort to promote his happiness." Say his friends' kind- 
ness, when they sacrifice their comfort to promote his happiness. 

" We were struck with the grandeur of the scenery in the neighbor- 
hood of this cascade, and could not help admiring it. n Admiring what? 
The grandeur, the scenery, or the cascade ? The sentence must be altered 
so as to determine which is meant. " We could not help admiring the 
striking grandeur of the scenery in the neighborhood of this cascade." 
Or, " Struck with its grandeur, we could not help admiring the scenery 
in the neighborhood of this cascade." Or, "We could not help admiring 
this cascade, which was surrounded by scenery of striking grandeur." 

587. A pronoun should not be used with its substan- 
tive, in a relation which the substantive may itself 
properly sustain. 

" Regulus having reached Rome, he urged the senate not to accept the 
terms proposed by Carthage." Omit he, and thus make Regulus the sub- 
ject. " Whatever we desire, we are very apt to hope it* Omit it. " It 
is hard indeed, the lot of the poor when they are attacked by sickness." 
Say, " Hard indeed is the lot of the poor, when," &c. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Undee § 581. A ruler that administers the laws with justice 
and who consults the happiness of his subjects, will always be re- 
spected. 

[Corrected. — A ruler that administers the laws with justice and 
that consults the happiness of his subjects, will always be respected,, 
Who must be changed to that, because that is used in the previous 



it may be corrected. Show what is wrong in the sentence We were struck with the 
grandeur of the scenery in the neighborhood of this cascade, and could not help ad- 
miring it. Alter the sentence in three ways, so as to determine its meaning 
587. State the rule relating to a pronoun and its substantive. 



FALSE SYNTAX. 213 

relative clause with reference to the same antecedent, the two 
clauses being connected by a conjunction.] 

Such travellers as have penetrated into the interior of Africa 
and who have given us an account of their explorations, repre- 
sent it as abounding in game. — What surprises me most, and 
which may well surprise every-body, is that men will so far lose 
sight of their own interests as to fall into intemperance. — Persons 
that have been blind from their birth, but who have opportu- 
nities for instruction, can be taught to read with facility. — The 
cotton that is raised on these islands, and which always commands 
a better price than the ordinary qualities, is one of the staples of 
the state. 

Under § 582, 583. Can you remember the book where you saw 
the passage ? — There are characters where there seems to be no 
redeeming feature. — It is useless to speak of the authors whence 
Milton drew his inspiration. — Gibbon sometimes utters senti- 
ments whence we can derive no good. — He has produced a 
volume well calculated to interest the class it is intended. — 
What else could Burgoyne do in the circumstances he was 
placed ? 

Under § 584. When there are too many laws, they are con- 
stantly violated ; which always has a bad effect on the commu- 
nity. — We love to see a man modest, which is generally a sign 
of merit. — After an illness of a few days, Washington died ; 
which was the cause of great sorrow to the country at large. — 
Hannibal wintered at Capua, which proved the ruin of his 
army. 

Under § 585. Jackson had no fears but what he would pre- 
vent the further advance of the British. — We have bought some 
of them French roses. — Do you like them fuchsias as well as ours? 
— I have no apprehensions but what he will be in time. 

Under § 586. Helen sent Mary a pot of jelly, which she said 
she had made for her husband. — ~No man should allow another 
to commit a crime, if he can prevent him. — Why did not the friends 
of Hamilton and Burr do their best to prevent the duel between 
them? — The simplicity of the style maintained throughout this 
book, has always led me to admire it. 

Under § 587. William and Mary, they have no love for study. 
—It is singular the labor that men will undergo to avoid labor. — 



214 THE ARTICLE. 

Kossuth having taken refuge in Turkey, he was now for a time 
safe. — It is not always right, what a man thinks to he right. — 
There is no politician, whom, however high he may stand in the 
eyes of the world, we shall not find him selfish and unscrupulous. 



LESSON LXXIX. 

ARTICLES. -FALSE SYNTAX. 



RULE VIII.— Articles. 

588. An article relates to the word whose meaning 
it limits. 

Examples. — A tie the holiest that can bind men together. — The less 
we talk, the less trouble we are likely to fall into. — The prodigal [persons'] 
often come to want. — Charles the Bald [king]. — If all the planets are in- 
habited, what a countless throng of living beings must pass before the 
Creator's eye ! 

589. The articles must not be interchanged. " He does not look like 
the man of talent." Change the to a, because no particular man of talent 
is referred to. 

590. An or a must not be used with a plural noun. 
" He borrowed a tongs from a hut a long ways off." 
Correct thus : — " He borrowed a pair of tongs from a 
hut a great distance off." 

591. No article must be joined to nouns used in 
their widest sense, or to the names of qualities, passions, 
states of being, &c, taken generally, and not as belong- 
ing to a particular object. 

We say, " Lead us not into temptation [not the temptation] ; deliver 
U3 from evil [not the evil]." But we speak of " the temptations of the 

588. Recite Rule VIII. , relating to articles. Give examples, and in each tell 
to what the article relates. 589. In the sentence He does not look like the man of 
talent, what change should be made, and why ? 590. With what must an or a not 
be used ? 591. To what nouns must an article not be joined ? When must the 
article be prefixed to the names of qualities, passions, states of feeling, &c. ? 



THE ARTICLE. 215 

world," "the evil of sin." So, "Patience is a virtue;" but "the patience 
of Job." When we limit the meaning of the noun to a particular object 
with the preposition of, we must introduce the article. 

592. No article must be joined to the names of the arts and sciences, 
or words used merely as titles ; as, u Columbus was well versed in geog- 
raphy and mathematics [not the geography and the mathematics]." " The 
supreme executive officer in Russia is called Czar [not a Czar]." 

593. When two or more nouns come together in the same construction, 
the article need not be repeated unless they are contrasted ; as, " The 
energy and ambition of Napoleon were equalled only by his selfishness." 
But, u We admire the energy, but not the ambition, of Napoleon." The 
article is here repeated, because the nouns are contrasted. 

594. If one of the nouns does not admit an article before it, place it 
first; as, " Mathematics and the classics should both be studied as a men- 
tal discipline," — not the classics and mathematics, for then the article 
would appear to limit the meaning of mathematics also. 

595. In making a comparison, if we refer to one per- 
son or thing viewed in different characters or capacities, 
we must use the article but once ; if we refer to two 
persons or things, we use it twice. 

" Shakspeare was a greater poet than actor." Here we refer to but one 
person, and say that he was greater as a poet than as an actor. If we re- 
peat the article — " Shakspeare was a greater poet than an actor" — we 
mean than an actor was, and refer to two different parties. 

596. So, when a noun is preceded by two or more adjectives connected 
by a conjunction, if but one person or thing is referred to, place the article 
before the first adjective only ; but, if more than one, use the article 
with each adjective. If we mean one spot, partly black and partly blue, 
we say "a black and blue spot"; but, if we refer to two spots, one all 
black and the other all blue, we say "a black and a blue spot ". 

597. Few means not many ; little means not much. By putting the 
article a before them, we make their meaning positive ; a few, a little, 
mean some. It is better to have a few virtues than, few virtues, and a little 

S02. To what else must an article not be joined? 593. When two or more nouna 
come together in the same construction, when may we use the article hut once, 
and when must we repeat it? 594. What must be done, if one of the nouns does 
not admit an article before it ? 595. In making a comparison, when must we use 
the article but once, and when must we repeat it ? 596. When a noun is preceded 
by two or more adjectives connected by a conjunction, when must the article be 
U6ed before the first adjective only, and when before each? 597. What does few 



216 THE ARTICLE. 

money than little money. A person may be commended for having few 
vices, but not for having a few. 

598. Arrangement. — The article generally precedes 
its noun, but sometimes follows it ; as, the fourth chap- 
ter, chapter the fourth. 

599. When both an article and an adjective are joined to a noun, the 
msual order is article, adjective, noun ; rarely, as in the last example, noun, 
article, adjective. 

600. The adjective stands before the article and noun, when the expres- 
sions all the, both the, many a, such a, what a, are used ; as, both the 
hemispheres. 

601. When the adjective is modified by as, how, so, or too, the article 
stands immediately before the noun, and the adjective with its modifier 
either precedes both or follows both ; as, too terrible a doom, or a doom too 
terrible. When the adjective is modified by any other adverb, the order 
is either article, adjective, noun, or better article, noun, adjective. We say 
a dazzlingly bright eye, or better an eye dazzlingly bright. 

602. When the adjective is modified by several words, the article pre- 
cedes the noun, and the adjective with its modifying words follows it ; as, 
a character lovely in every point of view. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Under § 589. A diphthong is the combination of two vowels in 
one syllable. 

[Corrected. — A diphthong is a combination of two vowels in 
one syllable. The must be changed to a, because a diphthong, 
one of the kind but no particular one, is defined. J 

By the variation of the compass is meant a deviation in the 
direction of the needle from due north. — Few flowers are so beau- 
tiful as a dahlia. — An eagle is the emblem of America. — A whale 
is the largest of fish. — Critics are not agreed as to what animal 
Job means, when he speaks of a leviathan. — She is entitled to the 
third of her husband's property. 

mean ? What does little mean? What is the effect of putting a before few and 
little ? Illustrate this. 598. What is the usual position of the article ? 599. When 
both an article and an adjective are joined to a noun, what is the usual order ? 600. 
In what expressions does the adjective precede the article and noun? 601. What is 
the order, when the adjective is modified by as, how, so, or too 7 What is the order 
when the adjective is modified by any other adverb ? 602. When the adjective is 
modified by several words, what is the order ? 



FALSE SYNTAX. 217 

Under § 590. I have just ordered a splendid regalia. — About 
this time, people were alarmed by a singular phenomena in the 
sky. — The crime was committed in a thick woods. — I can not cut 
with such a dull scissors. — When you go to market, buy me a hen 
and chickens. 

Under § 591, 592. The apteryx is a curious kind of a bird with- 
out the wings. — Which must not be used when a reference is made 
to persons. — The law is just, but it operates hard in the particular 
cases. — Neither the famine nor the pestilence destroys as many as 
the sword. — Cresar was now again saluted as the dictator. 

Under § 593, 594. Europeans can stand the heat, but not ma- 
laria, of Africa. — It is the justice, as much as wisdom, of a magis- 
trate, that we admire. — The law and politics engaged his attention 
by turns. — The dahlia, as well as fuchsia, is a native of America. 

Under § 595. A mastiff makes a better watch-dog than spaniel. 
— Many a boy that is sent to college would make a better black- 
smith than a scholar. — A German acquires the English language 
more easily than Italian. — Michael Angelo was as great a painter 
as a sculptor. 

Under § 596. Earmer Ball has a black and white cow, and lets 
them both run on the road. — A black and a white cow was run 
over by the locomotive last Tuesday. — The past and present con- 
dition of Greece present quite a contrast. — The upper and lower 
cities have a very different appearance. — There is a black and a 
blue spot where I struck my arm. 

Under § 597. I am happy to say that he has little sense of shame 
left. — "We can point with honest pride to few American sculptors. — . 
They have run through their property, and now have a little left. 



LESSON LXXX. 

ADJECTIVES. -FALSE SYNTAX 



RULE X. — Adjectives. 

603. An adjective relates to the substantive whose 
meaning it qualifies or limits. 

603. Recite Rule X., relating to adjective*. Give examples, and in each toll 
10 



218 CONSTRUCTION OF ADJECTIVES, 

Examples. — Truth is eternal. — We are all mortal. — To retreat is im- 
possible. — That the best printing-presses are made in the United States is 
certain. — The ungrateful [persons'] are inexcusable. — To be [a] virtuous 
[man] is to be [a] happy [man]. 

604. Use this and that with singular nouns only, these and those only 
with plurals. Say this sort of men, not these sort, because sort is singu- 
lar ; these tidings, not this tidings, because tidings is plural. 

605. This here and these \re, that there and those \re, are gross errors. 
Correct by omitting the adverbs — this boy, not this here boy. 

606. Few means not many ; little means not much. Few, fewer, fewest, 
are therefore used with reference to things numbered ; little, less, least, 
with reference to quantities. " There can not be fewer than a hundred 
persons present." " It can not weigh less than a hundred pounds." 

607. Whole implies entireness of parts. To imply entireness of num- 
ber, we must use all. We say the whole population, but all the inhabi- 
tants. Wliole villages may be destroyed in a country, yet some may es- 
cape ; if all the villages are destroyed, none escape. 

608. Adjectives, though they have the form of participles or are de« 
rived from them, can not govern the objective case. If an objective fol- 
lows them, it depends on a preposition, and this preposition should gen- 
erally be expressed. Say conduct unbecoming to a gentleman, not unbe- 
coming a gentleman. 

609. Arrangement. — When several adjectives are 
joined to a noun, if all refer to it alike, they are gener- 
ally arranged according to their length, the shortest 
first, and connected by a conjunction ; as, " a graceful, 
beautiful, and intelligent girl '\ 

But sometimes an adjective forms with a noun one 
complex idea that can be modified by another adjec- 
tive, and this again by another. In such cases, the 
adjectives are not connected by a conjunction, and 

to what the adjective relates. 604 With what must this and that be used ? With 
what, these and those ? 605. WTaat expressions are pronounced gross errors ? How 
are they to be corrected? 606. To what are few, fewer, fewest applied, and to 
what little, /ess, least? 607. What is the difference of meaning between whole and 
all ? Illustrate this. 608. Is an adjective capable of governing ? What should be 
expressed after an adjective, to govern the objective case ? 609. When several ad- 
jectives refer alike to a noun, in what order are they generally arranged ? In what 
case must the adjectives not be connected by a conjunction ? How must they then 
be arranged? In what order do they generally stand, as regards their meaning? 



FALSE SYNTAX. 219 

must be so arranged that each may properly modify 
the complex idea conveyed by the adjectives and noun 
which follow. 

Adjectives denoting material generally stand nearest the noun, then 
those denoting color, then age, then ordinary qualities : as, " a handsome, 
new, white wooden cottage ; " "a well-formed, spirited, young iron-grey 
horse ; " "a gloomy, dilapidated old building ". 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Under § 604. Napoleon was rapid in his movements, and by 
these means surprised his enemies. 

[Corrected. — Napoleon was rapid in his movements, and by 
tTiis means surprised his enemies. These must be changed to this, 
because, but one means being spoken of, means is singular.] 

Put that ashes in the barrel. — I can not help thinking of those 
bad news you brought. — After you have bought a gallon of those 
good molasses, take this spectacles to the silver-smith's, to get 
them mended. — For this last ten days, she has suffered from 
neuralgia. — Old houses are infested with rats aDd mice, aDd this 
vermin sometimes do great damage to the walls. — None of those 
kind of persons will be admitted. 

Under § 605. I do not like these 'ere coarse-pointed pens. — 
Set out those 'ere onions in this here bed. — What has become of 
that there friend of yours? 

Under § 606, 607. I have little fears on that subject. — She 
dislikes visitors ; the less she has, the better it suits her. — In 
this retired spot, you have the least possible interruptions. — No 
less than forty-seven scholars were engaged on our standard 
translation of the Bible. — If less than twenty members are pres- 
ent, no business can be done. — The whole waters around New- 
foundland teem with fish. — All the families in New York were 
attacked by the cholera ; very few escaped altogether. — The whole 
details are harrowing in the extreme. 

Under § 608. Be sparing flattery, when you are in the com- 
pany of sensible people. — Some persons are so vile as to be utterly 
undeserving notice. — "We expect from you such deportment as is 
becoming your position in life. — Parties most deserving the aid 
of the charitable are frequently overlooked. 



220 CONSTRUCTION OF ADJECTIVES. 

Undee § 609. An industrious, obliging, faithful, and smart 
servant, is a rarity. — I found her an intelligent and young lady. — ■ 
The company have just erected a brick fine four-story building. — - 
Here is a white fragrant rose. — We saw a number of rusty singu- 
lar copper old coins. — They have presented their minister a new 
black handsome cloth coat. 



LESSON LX5XI. 

ADJECTIVES (CONTINUED). -FALSE SYNTAX. 

610. Adjectives whose meaning precludes the idea 
of comparison must not be compared. Nor must they 
be used with more, most, less, least, so, or any other 
adverb implying difference of degrees in the quality 
denoted. 

An adjective already in the comparative or superlative degree must 
not be made the basis of a new comparison. 

Do not say, the chief est beauty, a truer statement, so faultless a char- 
acter, the farther est house, a more nearer view, the least wisest course. 
Correct by omitting the termination or adverb that implies comparison ; 
or by substituting an adjective that may properly be compared. Thus : 
the chief beauty, a more correct statement, a character so nearly faultless , 
the farthest house, a nearer view, the least wise course. 

611. In comparing two objects, use the comparative 
degree ; in comparing more than two at once, the 
superlative : as, " the elder of the two brothers," 
" the eldest of the family ". " Asia is larger than Eu- 
rope." " Asia is the largest of the grand divisions of 
the earth." 

The comparative degree is used when an object is compared with any 



610. What adjectives must not he compared ? With what words, also, must 
such adjectives not be used ? What rule is laid down with respect to adjectives 
already in the comparative or superlative ? According to these rules, what are we 
forbidden to say? How must we correct such expressions? 611. In comparing 
objects, when must the comparative degree be used, and when the superlative I 



CONSTRUCTION OF ADJECTIVES. 221 

number of others, provided they are taken separately ; as, "Asia is larger 
than Europe, Africa, or North America." u Asia is larger than any other 
grand division." 

612. After the comparative degree, use other with 
the latter of the terms compared, if it includes the 
former, and only then. 

" The Amazon is longer than any river." The Amazon being a river^ 
the latter of the terms compared, river, includes the former, Amazon; 
and we assert that the Amazon is longer than itself. Correct by intro- 
ducing the word other, to exclude the former term : " The Amazon is longer 
than any other river." 

" The Amazon is longer than any other river of Europe." Here the 
Amazon is not compared with rivers in general, but with the rivers of 
Europe. As it is not itself a river of Europe, the latter term compared 
does not include the former, and other must be omitted. 

613. After the superlative degree, neither other nor 
any must be used with the latter of the terms com- 
pared ; this latter term must include the former. 

"The Amazon is the longest of all other rivers." "The Amazon is 
the longest of any river in the world." Both these sentences are wrong, 
because the latter term compared does not include the former. Say, " The 
Amazon is the longest of rivers ; " or, of all rivers. 

" Augustus was the greatest of all his successors." Wrong, because 
Augustus was not one of his own successors ; the latter term does not in- 
clude the former. Correct by substituting a term that does include the 
former : " Augustus was the greatest of all the Roman emperors." Or else 
substitute the comparative degree: u Augustus was greater than any of 
his successors." 

614. An adjective in the comparative or superlative 
must precede an adjective modified by more or most, 
relating to the same noun ; as, " a larger and more in- 
teresting volume ". 

In what case may the comparative degree be used, even when an object is com- 
pared with any number of others ? 612. How and when must other be used after 
the comparative degree ? Show by examples when other must be used, and when 
not. 613. After the superlative degree, what words must not be used with the 
latter term? Why not? Illustrate this principle. 614. What is the proper 
order, when a comparative or superlative and an adjective modified by more or 



222 FALSE SYNTAX. 

We do not say "a more interesting and larger volume," 1. Because it 
would sound ill. 2. Because it might appear that more belonged to the 
second adjective larger, as well as to interesting. 

615. Adjectives must not be used for adverbs, nor 
adverbs for adjectives. See § 403, 404. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Under § 610. Nothing is more preferable than a good char- 
acter. 

[Corrected. — Nothing is preferable to a good character. More 
must be omitted, because the meaning of preferable precludes the 
idea of comparison. Than must be changed to to, because prefer- 
able is followed by to.] 

The people were clamorous for a freer constitution. — Few in- 
stitutions give so complete a course and so perfect an education 
as the German Universities. — Turkey is as dead as any country 
can well be. — The raisins of Malaga are more superior than those 
of Smyrna. — The English regarded Wellington with the most 
entire confidence. — Mohammedan pilgrims look upon Mecca as 
the most holiest spot on earth. — Did you not promise to take 
her for better or worser ? — The Pacific is the least roughest of 
all the oceans. — How much more are we better off than ever 
before ! 

Under § 611. Which of those twins is the largest? — The elder 
of your three brothers is the smaller. — Is the present or the past 
condition of France the best? — Which is the most northerly, New 
York or San Francisco ? — Which is the more northerly, New York, 
Philadelphia, or San Francisco ? The former, I think. — At Pana- 
ma, the year is divided into a wet and a dry season ; the last is 
the shortest. — We have a department for boys and one for girls; 
the former are the smartest in arithmetic, but the latter are the 
best in composition. 

Under § 612. The plague was more fatal than any disease 
then known. — Mary is shorter than any other of her sisters. — 
Jeremiah is more pathetic than any of the prophets. — Day and 



most relate to the same noun ? Why should we not say a more interesting and 
'/xrger volume 7 615. What is the last rule relating to adjectives? 



FALSE SYNTAX. 223 

night are longer in the polar regions than in other lower latitudes. 
—Iridium and platinum are heavier than any of the metals. 

Under § 613. Lake Superior is the largest of any lake in the 
world. — Washington was the last of his soldiers to leave the field. 
— Mount Mitchell is the loftiest of any other elevation of land 
east of the Kocky Mountains. — Adam is supposed to have been 
the most noble looking of his descendants. — The moon is the 
nearest to us of all the stars. 

Under § 614. There are few more fertile or fairer lands than 
Italy. — Domitian was one of the most tyrannical, most depraved, 
and weakest, of the Roman emperors. — The reign of George III. 
was at the same time the most eventful and longest recorded in 
English history. 

Under § 615. Opportunities of gaining distinction do not now 
occur so frequent as they did in old times. — The sun looks less 
brightly than usual to-day. — There are few that live as holy as 
they ought. — His finger pains him very bad. — It makes one feel 
strangely to be alone in a foreign land. — Water is frozen easier 
than alcohol. — James reads more distinct than any of my scholars. 



LESSON LXXXII. 

FINITE VERBS. — FALSE SYNTAX. 



RULE XI. — Agreement of the Verb. 

616. A verb agrees with its subject in person and 
number. 

Examples. — I dare [1st, sing., agreeing with /] not go. — He dares 
not go. — If thou Tiadst obeyed orders, all would have been well. — Thou is 
[3d, sing., agreeing with thou taken merely as a word] in the singular 
number. — Each of them is to be examinated. — There needs great labor to 
produce a good crop. — There lacked but one [article] of the whole num- 
ber. — Is it thou ? — Who art thou ? — Go [thou~] meet [thou] thy brother. — 
To die is [3d, sing., agreeing with the infinitive to die] gain.^— From what 

616. Eecite Eule XI., relating to the agreement of the verb. In each of the 
examples, give the person and number of the verb, and tell with what it agrees. 



224 AGREEMENT OF THE YERB. 

country the nectarine was introduced, is [3rd, sing., agreeing with the 
substantive clause that precedes] uncertain. 

617. Cautions. — Be sure that the verb agrees with 
the right word. When it is separated from its subject 
by an intervening substantive, there is a tendency to 
make it agree with the latter. 

" A succession of excitements are sure to distract the mind from study." 
Wrong, because succession is the subject, and not excitements, which is 
the object of the preposition of. The verb are must be made singular, — 
is. So, " Your vessel, together with twelve others, has [not have] ar- 
rived." " This confusion of ideas in educated minds is [not are] to be 
deplored." 

618. Be sure that the verb is in the right person and 
number, when its subject is a relative pronoun; re- 
membering that a relative takes the person and num- 
ber of its antecedent. 

" A belief in astrology was one of the most wide-spread delusions that 
has ever led men astray." The subject that agrees with its antecedent 
delusio?is in the third person, plural ; the verb should therefore be plural, 
— have led. "I am the person that is [not am] responsible for the state- 
ment." Here person is the antecedent, not /; and the relative is in the 
third, singular. 

619. The title of a book, being looked upon as one thing, takes a verb 
in the singular, even though its leading substantive is plural ; as, " Howitt's 
4 Homes of the Poets 7 is [not are] a delightful volume." 

620. A verb between two nominatives agrees with the one that is the 
leading subject of discourse. This, except in questions asked with an in- 
terrogative pronoun, is almost always the one that precedes it ; as, " God- 
liness is great riches." 

If the nominatives are equally prominent as subjects of discourse, the 
verb may agree with the one that follows it, particularly if it is nearer than 
the other; as, "The wages of sin is death." Are, agreeing with wages, 
would be equally good. 

617. What tendency is there, -when the verb is separated from its subject by an 
intervening substantive? Illustrate this, and show the error. 618. What must 
be observed, when the subject is a relative pronoun? Illustrate this point. 
619. State the principle relating to the title of a book. 620. When a verb stands 
between two nominatives, with which does it agree? If the nominatives are 
equally prominent as subjects of discourse, with which may the verb agree \ 



AGREEMENT OF THE VERB. 225 

621. Collective Nouns. — A verb agreeing with a 
collective noun is put in the plural, unless the action 
or state is clearly affirmed of the individuals taken to- 
gether as one body, in which case the singular is re- 
quired. 

11 The crowd were eager to hear the news." The verb is in the plural, 
because it was not the crowd as one body, but the individuals in the crowd, 
that experienced the delight. " The crowd was composed of men of every 
class." Here the crowd as one whole, is evidently meant, and the verb 
must be in the singular. 

622. A collective noun preceded by this, that, every, each, or no, gen- 
erally implies one whole, and takes a verb in the singular; as, "Every 
mob has its leader." 

623. Few, many, hundred, thousand, &c, almost always take a plural 
verb; as, "Afew have escaped altogether ; a great many of the survivors 
are seriously injured." " A hundred [of] swords were drawn? 

624. A collective noun in the plural takes a plural 
verb ; as, " Large crowds were harangued every day." 

false syntax. 

Under § 616. "If that is the only difficulty," says I to myself, 
" we shall soon succeed." 

[Corrected. — "If that is the only difficulty," say I to myself, 
" we shall soon succeed." Says must be changed to say, to agree 
with its subject /, in the first, singular.] 

Fifty head of cattle was sold yesterday. — The duke may talk 
as he choose, but he dare not refuse my petition.— - Was you at 
the concert last evening ? — If he have brought any news, he will 
soon let us know. — Each of the states are well represented. — He 
need to be reminded of his promise. — What means these loud com- 
plaints ? Was you not warned ? — By the term fossils is meant the 
petrified remains of animals and plants. — To comply with the 
rules promptly and cheerfully are required of all. 

Next, thinks I, he will insult the prince himself. — Suspend 

621. Give the rule for a verb agreeing with a collective noun. Give examples. 

622. What words before a collective noun generally show that it requires a verb 
in the singular? 623. What collective nouns almost always take a plural verb? 
024. What is said of a collective noun in the plural? 

10* 



226 FALSE SYNTAX. 

your opinion till the true state of the case have appeared.— There 
are plenty of oats in Illinois. — My scissors was broken yester- 
day. — Every one of your arguments are absurd.— What did you 
say have become of your three cousins ? — Five are an odd num- 
ber. — The animalcula in water is clearly seen with the microscope. 
— That you should deceive yourself so grossly and so fatally are 
almost incredible. 

Under § 617. The number of immigrants from Ireland have 
greatly decreased. — The train due last evening, with several others, 
were detained till the track could be cleared. — The fragrance of 
honeysuckles and roses fill the air. — Are not twelve months' travel 
in Europe enough to tire any one ? — The absurdity of many of 
Mohammed's doctrines are self-evident. 

Under § 618. Set forth such arguments as seems to you the 
most conclusive. — Thou mighty spirit of the past that looks upon 
me with thy melancholy eyes! — Spencer is confessedly one of the 
ablest men that has written on education. — It is I that is wrong. 
— The memoranda that is lost, would throw light on the subject. 
— She is one of those cheerful women that always wears a smile. 
—"Who that have any regard for what is becoming, could dress 
her hair in this way ? 

Under § 619, 620. Herschel's "Outlines of Astronomy" are 
worthy of a place in every student's library. — The chief wealth of 
the Laplanders are [consists of] reindeer. — I have just finished 
Kennedy's " Memoirs of Wirt ", which are certainly extremely 
interesting. — Five wild turkeys was the reward of my labors. 

Under § 621. A herd of a thousand cattle [is or are?] no un- 
common sigfyt. — A whole tribe [was or were f] sometimes nearly 
destroyed in war. — A large flock of crows [has or have f] alighted 
in the corn-field. — The jury [is or are f] certainly an intelligent 
set of men. — The family you relieved still [remembers or remem- 
ber f] your kindness. — The committee [was or were ?] indefatigable 
in their efforts to arrive at the truth. 

Under § 622, 623, 624. Each flock that alight, destroy bushels 
of grain. — Every family you relieved still remember your kind- 
ness. — A few inches more or less in a lady's height makes some 
difference. — A hundred oysters does not occupy much room. — 
What avails even the mightiest armies, if they are led by in- 
competent commanders ? 



TWO OR MORE SINGULAR SUBJECTS, 227 

LESSON LXXXIII. 

FINITE VERBS (CONT INUE D ). -FALSE SYNTAX. 

625. Two or more singular subjects or substantive 
clauses, taken together, require a plural verb ; taken 
separately, they require a verb in the singular. 

Examples. Taken together. — James and John are here. — That you 
have done your duty, that you have saved me from great loss, are facts 
that I can not deny. — In the former of these examples, are must be parsed 
as in the third, plural, — agreeing with its subject James and John, two 
singular substantives taken together : — Rule, A verb agrees with its sub- 
ject in person and number. 

Taken separately. — James or John is here. — That you have done your 
duty or saved me from great loss, is untrue. — In the former of these ex- 
amples, is must be parsed as in the third, singular, agreeing with its sub- 
ject James or John, two singular substantives taken separately : — Rule, 
A verb agrees, &c. 

626. Subjects are said to be taken together, when 
they are connected by and expressed or understood. 
" Industry, energy, and honesty, are [plu.] essential to 
success." Or without and, " Industry, energy, honesty, 
are [plu.] essential to success." 

One of the substantives thus taken together may be understood ; as, 
" Irving's and Macaulay's style are very different," — that is, Irving's style 
' and Macaulay's style. 

627. The title of a book, being looked upon as one thing, takes a verb 
in the singular, even though it consists of two substantives connected by 
and; as, u Moore's * Paradise and the Peri ' is justly admired." 

628. When two singular substantives connected by and denote the 
same individual, the verb agrees with them in the singular; as, "The 
draper and tailor on the corner is about to remove." 

625. What is the rule relating to two or more singular subjects or substantive 
clauses ? In the sentence James and John are here, name the singular subjects. 
How are they taken ? Parse are. In the sentence James or John is here, name the 
singular subjects. How are they taken? Parse is. 626. When are subjects said 
to be taken together ? What is said of one of the subjects thus taken together ? 
627. What exception is mentioned, relating to the title of a book ? 628. In what 
other case does a verb agree in the singular with two singular substantives con* 



228 SUBJECTS TAKEN SEPARATELY. 

629. Subjects are said to be taken separately, 

1. "When they are connected by or, nor, and also^ 
and too, and not, hut, if not, as well as. 

" Benton, and General Jackson also, was [sing.] a native of North 
Carolina." " Wellington, but not Nelson, was born [sing.] in Ireland."—- 
In these examples, the verb agrees with the former substantive and is un* 
derstood with the other. 

2. When they are severally preceded by each, every, 
no, or not. " Every tempest and every dew-drop has 
[sing,] its mission to perform." 

3. When the first is separated from the rest by the 
verb, which in that case agrees with the first and is 
understood with the rest. " His wit pleases [sing.] me, 
his frankness, and hfc> courtesy." 

4. When the subject is repeated with and only or 
equivalent words, or a stronger term is substituted for 
the one first used. 

" Religion, and religion only, is [sing.] an anchor that we can trust." 
"Dislike, nay hatred, was written [sing.] on his countenance." 

630. When subjects taken together are of different persons, the plural 
verb is to be parsed as in the first person rather than the second, and the 
second rather than the third. Observe, also, that modesty requires a 
speaker or writer to mention himself last. "She, thou, and I [that is, 
we] are [first person] well." " She and thou [that is, you] are [second 
person] well." 

631. When subjects taken separately are of different persons, the 
verb should be repeated with each, if a different form is required. " Either 
you are in the wrong, or I am." " She is very tired, and so am I." 

632. When subjects connected by or or nor are in different numbers, 
the verb should be put in the plural, and the plural subject or subjects 
should stand nearest to it; as, "Neither rank nor riches make me think 
highly of a man." 

nected by and ? 629. In what four cases are subjects said to be taken separately ? 
When the connection is made with and also, &c, with which substantive does the 
verb agree? 630. When subjects taken together are of different persons, how is 
the verb to be parsed ? How should / be placed ? 631. When should the verb bo 
repeated with subjects taken separately ? 632. What rule is laid down respecting 
subjects connected by or or nor t when they are in different numbers 1 



AGREEMENT OF THE VERB. 229 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Under § 625. Neither olive oil nor alcohol are so heavy as 
distilled water, but milk and sea water is heavier. 

[Corrected.— Neither olive oil nor alcohol is so heavy as dis- 
tilled water, but milk and sea water are heavier. Are must be 
changed to is, to agree in the singular with oil and alcohol taken 
separately. Is must be changed to are, to agree in the plural with 
milk and water taken together.] 

What signifies rank and wealth, if we have not the health to 
enjoy them ? — Neither honor, justice? nor truth, permit you now 
to draw back. — Your friendly warning and my stern rebuke [was 
or were?] alike unheeded. — To sympathize with the sorrowing 
and relieve the distressed [is or are ?] required of every Chris- 
tian. — "Wonderfully [has or have?] art and science progressed 
during the present century. — Lithography, or the art of obtain- 
ing impressions from stone, [is or are?] a modern invention. — 
That he would betray his trust or try to deceive [is or are ?] 
not probable. 

Under § 626. Serf, artisan, noble, prince, was among Peter the 
Hermit's auditors. — What care we for the indifference, the in- 
gratitude, the scorn of the world, which has been the reward of 
the good in every age ? — The torrid and the frigid zone represents 
the extremes of heat and cold. — Reaumur's and Fahrenheit's scale 
is quite different. 

Under § 627, 628. " Paul and Virginia " are a delightful story. 
— Simms has just completed " The Sword and the Distaff", which, 
I am told, are among the best of his productions. — Your friend and 
cousin, as you always call him, have returned. — Our minister 
plenipotentiary and envoy extraordinary, with all his suite, are at 
the National Hotel. 

Under § 629. Not only Albany, but New York also, were 
founded by the Dutch. — Peru, and not Mexico, were conquered 
by Pizarro. — Cuba, as well as Haiti, were discovered by Colum- 
bus. — Each village and each hamlet have their petty chief.— Not 
friendship, not success, not wealth, make a man truly happy. — In 
Mexico the cactus bloom in great profusion, the magnolia, and 
the oleander. — Energy, and nothing but energy, are capable of 
succeeding in a new country. — Folly, even crime, too often meet 
with no rebuke in fashionable society. 



230 CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. 

Under § 631, 632. Neither my grandfather nor myself are able 
to put up with this any longer. — Either thou or thy brother hath 
informed me wrong. — Not only I, but thou also, art to blame. — 
Neither the tongs nor the poker was in its place. — Either Victoria 
and her cabinet or Louis Napoleon has made a great mistake. 



LESSON LXXXI. 

FINITE VERBS ( CO N T I N U E D). -F A L S E SYNTAX. 

633. Errors of various kinds, besides those already 
noticed, are common in the use of verbs. They consist 
chiefly in the substitution of one mood or tense for an- 
other, the use of corrupt forms, and a want of consist- 
ency when two or more verbs stand in the same con- 
struction. 

634. Do not use the indicative for the subjunctive 
mood. 

635. Use the present subjunctive, not indicative, in a command, pro- 
hibition, or warning, after a conjunction following an imperative or such 
phrases as it is necessary, "Have a care lest thou/a^ [not fallesf]. n 

636. Use the imperfect subjunctive, not indicative, to express a wish or 
supposition, when the opposite of what is wished or supposed is really the 
case ; as, " Would Heaven he were [not was] here ! " 

637. Use the present indicative to express what is 
always true, even though the leading verb is past ; as, 
" Many of the ancients believed that the soul is [not 
was] immortal." 

638. The perfect indicative must be used when past 



633, In what do the remaining errors in the use of verbs chiefly consist ? 
634. What caution is given relating to the subjunctive mood ? 635. In what must 
the present subjunctive, and not the present indicative, be used ? 636. What must 
be expressed with the imperfect subjunctive, and not the imperfect indicative ? 
637. What must the present indicative be used to express ? 638. When must the 
perfect indicative be used ? With what must it not be used ? Illustrate these 



CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS 231 

time connected with the present is denoted, but must 
not stand with words denoting past time simply. 

" They are travelling for the last three months." Here past time ter- 
minating at the present is denoted, and the present tense must therefore 
be changed to the perfect: "They have been travelling for the last three 
months." U A great storm has set in yesterday." Here past time not' 
connected with the present is denoted, and the perfect tense must be 
changed to the imperfect: " A great storm set in yesterday." 

639. The imperfect potential is often used in wrong 
connections. 

" Remember that you might fail in your attempt [say may fail]." "I 
will not speak of it, even if I should be asked [say if I am asked, or be 
asked]" " I would not speak of it, even if I shall be asked [say if I should 
be asked or were asked]" 

In like manner we say, " I will go, if I can ; " but, u I would go, if I 
coidd." ** I may go, if you will remain ; " but, " I might go, if you would 
remain." " I am making, have made, or will make, my arrangements to 
remain, that you may go." "I made or had made my arrangements to 
remain, that you might go." 

640. Be careful not to use the imperfect indicative 
of an irregular verb for the perfect participle, or the 
perfect participle for the imperfect indicative. 

Do not say has went for has gone, having wrote for having written, 1 
seen for / saw, &c. Numerous errors of this kind were presented for cor- 
rection under the in egular verbs. 

641. Avoid corrupt forms. 

Among the most common of these are had have, for had, in the plu- 
perfect; hadn't ought, for ought not; had as lief, had rather, &c, for 
would as lief, woidd rather, &c. ; Pm a mind, for / have a mind; arnH y 
for are not ; moughtnH, for might not, &c. 

642. In combining two or more auxiliaries with a 

points. 639. What tense is often used in wrong connections ? Give examples of 
this error. Is can or could used in a dependent clause, with will 7 With would! 
Is will or would used in a dependent clause, with may 7 With might 7 640. What 
two parts of irregular verbs must not be used for each other ? Give examples of 
the violation of this rule. 641. Mention some of the corrupt forms most com- 
monly used, and tell what must be substituted for each. 642. In combining two 



232 CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. 

participle or the root of a verb, be sure that they are 
all such as can properly be used with it. 

" I will give as much as he has." As he has what ? Evidently has 
give. Correct by introducing the participle with the latter auxiliary : "I 
will give as much as he has given" " Does he not economize, and even 
pinches himself, that his family may live comfortably ? " Pinches must 
not be used with the auxiliary does. Say, " Does he not economize, and 
even pinch himself," &c. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Under § 635, 636. See that thou forgettest not thy friends. 

[Corrected. — See that thou forget not thy friends. Forgettest 
must be changed to forget, the present subjunctive, because it ex- 
presses an act forbidden, after the conjunction that, following the 
imperative see.] 

It is proper that he makes an apology. — Use all your efforts, 
lest she surpasses you. — Oh that the storm was over, and the 
blessed sun was shining ! — If I was a farmer, I should give my 
attention principally to fruit. — Would that he was as devout as 
formerly ! — She could not be more queenly, if she was a queen. — 
I wish there was more honesty in the world. 

Under § 637. The experiments made on this occasion proved 
that water was impenetrable. — Copernicus was the first in mod- 
ern times to teach that the earth moved round the sun. — "Were 
you aware that comets sometimes moved more than a million of 
miles in an hour? — Columbus had become convinced that the 
earth was round. 

Under § 638. Philosophers, in old times, have taught some 
strange doctrines. — Living with her several years, I think I know 
her character. — Newark is long celebrated for the manufacture 
of carriages. — Seven metals have been known even in early times. 
— A law has long since been passed, forbidding merchants to en- 
cumber the sidewalk. 

Under § 639. Eailroads are not built, simply that a dozen 
directors might enrich themselves. — I should speak my mind 
more freely, if you will promise not to repeat what I say. — We 

or more auxiliaries with a participle or verbal root, what must be 6een to ? Illus- 
trate this. 



FALSE SYNTAX. 233 

shall ultimately find that there is some wise purpose in every 
affliction, though we could not discover what it was. — Could 
you not prepare your lessons hetter, if you try ? — Men will not 
listen to the warnings of the pulpit, that they might profit by 
them. 

Under § 641. Had Hume have looked into the matter more 
closely, he would not have made this misstatement. — Knowing 
the necessity of energy and perseverance, they hadn't ought to 
fold their arms at this crisis. — I had as lief remain, but I an't going 
to do so. — They said the stage moughtn't leave to-morrow, but 
I'm a mind to risk it. 

Under § 642. He would sit and read for hours, and then medi- 
tated much on what he read.— No poetry more sublime than Mil- 
ton's ever has or is likely to be written. — Have you ever, or can 
you imagine, how you would feel, if you were cast upon a desert 
island? — They could neither realize their misfortune nor pro- 
vided any remedy for its consequences. 



LESSON LXXXV. 

THE INFINITIVE. -FALSE SYNTAX. 



RULE XII. — Infinitives. 

643. A verb in the infinitive is used as a subject, or 
limits the meaning of some other word, or stands inde- 
pendently in the sentence. 

Examples. — To deceive [subject] is always wrong. — He chastens, [in 
order] to save [limits the meaning of the noun order understood]. — Ney 
offered battle rather than retreat. — There are animalcula so small as to be 
invisible. — Miller declared that the world was about to be destroyed. — Let 
strife cease. — Bid the repentant come. — A house to let [intrans.]. — To mur- 
mur or endure [used independently] — which is the wiser course ? — To speak 
plainly, honesty is at a discount. 

643. Recite Rule XII., relating to infinitives. Give an example of the use of 
the infinitive as a subject ; of its use as a modifier of other words •, of its inde 



234 CONSTRUCTION OF THE INFINITIVE. 

644. The preposition for must not be used immedi- 
ately before the infinitive ; as, " He is trying hard for 
to enter college." Correct by omitting the preposi- 
tion. 

645. The sign to mast not be separated from the 
rest of the infinitive by an adverb ; as, " To faithfully 
represent this scene would be impossible." Say faith* 
fully to represent this scene, or to represent this scene 
faithfully. 

646. The sign to must not be used for the full infini- 
tive, unless the root of the verb can be supplied from 
the preceding part of the sentence. 

" You might turn your talents to some account ; you ought to" In 
dignified composition, you ought to do so would be preferred ; but the sen- 
tence is grammatical as it stands, because we can supply turn from the 
first member and thus correctly complete the infinitive. "You never 
turned your talents to account ; but you ought to." Wrong, because, in 
completing the infinitive from the first member, we should have to say to 
turned. Change to you ought to have done so. 

647. The infinitive is used without its sign to after 
the following verbs : — 

1. Bid (meaning order), in the active voice ; as, " He bids us come." 
But, " He bids fair [that is, is likely] to succeed." " He was bidden [pas- 
sive] to prepare." 

2. Dare (meaning venture), when not in the infinitive, participles, or 
compound tenses ; as, "I dare not speak." Yet to is sometimes used ; as, 
" Nobody dares to touch him." — To must always be used in infinitives 
after dare meaning challenge, and after the infinitives, participles, and 
compound tenses of dare meaning venture; as, "They will not dare to 
draw back." 

pendent use. 644. What preposition must not be used immediately "before the in- 
finitive? 645. What is the rule relating to the separation of the sign to? 
646. WTien only may the sign to be used for the full infinitive ? Give examples of 
its proper and improper use for the full infinitive. 647. When must the infinitive 
be used without its sign, and when not, after bid 7 After dare 7 After feel 7 After 
hear 7 After make 7 Does to ever appear in the infinitive after make 7 When does 
see require the omission of to, and when not ? What verb in both voices requires 
the omission of to 7 After what other verbs is the sign of the infinitive occasionally 



OMISSION OF THE SIGN. 235 

3. Feel, when transitive and used literally ; as, " Did you feel the ball 
enter ? " But, when feel is in the passive voice, or is used figuratively of 
the mind, to must be introduced; as, " The ball was felt to enter." "I 
feel it to be right." 

4. Hear, in the active voice; as, " Just hear it thunder." 

5. Make, in the active voice; as, "He made them leave the room.' 7 
But to is sometimes used ; as, " Make us to love thee." 

6. See, when transitive, in the active voice ; as, "See it rain." When 
see is intransitive, to must be introduced ; as, " Can you see to thread this 
needle ? " 

1. Let, in both voices ; as, " Let them go." " They were let go." 
8. Occasionally, also, after find, have, help, know, behold, observe, 

watch, and in familiar style please ; as, " Help us pray [or to pray]." 

"Please receipt the bill." 

648. After other verbs than those just named, the sign to must not be 
omitted. 

649. If two infinitives or more are used in the same 
construction, the sign to generally appears in the first 
only, unless they are separated by a number of inter- 
vening words ; as, " Let us try to do good and avoid 
evil." 

650. Use the present infinitive to express an action 
or state not completed at the time denoted by the lead- 
ing verb ; the perfect, to express an action or state 
completed. 

"He expected to return to-day [not to have returned]." "Napoleon 
had hoped to occupy Dresden [not to have occupied]" " The Norwegians 
*re thought to have crossed the Atlantic before Columbus." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Under § 644. Never do alms for to be seen of men. — We all 
love for to see justice and virtue triumph. — Always strive for to 
gain the approbation of your own conscience ; for to have this i3 
better than great riches. 

omitted ? 648. What is said of the sign to after other verbs than those just named? 
649. What is said respecting the use of this sign, when two infinitives or more are 
joined in the same construction ? 650. What must the present infinitive be used 
for expressing ? What, the perfect infinitive ? 



236 FALSE SYNTAX. 

Under § 645, 646. It is the duty of the good man to sternly 
rebuke immorality, not only by precept, but also by his example. 
— The grammarian is not to arbitrarily create rules, but to 
patiently deduce them from the writings of standard authors. — 
I seem to distinctly behold the whole scene. — Jackson vetoed 
the United States Bank, as he had always intended to. — The 
Pacific Eailroad has not been built, but it is likely to before 
Jong. 

Under § 647. The captain bid us to leave the wreck, since he 
dared not to stay any longer. — I feel the pain to dart from one finger 
to another, and can almost see my arm to swell. — A few words 
were let to slip, that made me to apprehend some difficulty. — 
Do you feel it be right to leave, when you were bidden remain ? 
— When we have dared speak the truth, we feel that we 
have done right. — You were heard say that you would dare any 
one to mount your horse. — In this disease, pains are felt shoot 
through all parts of the body. — You can hear with great dis- 
tinctness the volcano to rumble, as if cannon were booming in 
the distance. 

Under § 648. Do I understand you say that you will not 
allow us remain ? —This movement on Dorchester Heights caused 
the enemy evacuate Boston. — An idle pupil needs be re- 
minded of the value of time. — Have I not forbidden you talk in 
school ? 

Under § 650. Before this time to-morrow, we ought certainly 
to have received news. — A keen speculator would not have let 
such a chance have passed by unimproved. — Did you expect to 
have accomplished what no one has ever done before ? — You 
profess to have been disappointed in me ; I am sorry to fall short 
of your expectations. 

Miscellaneous. — Murat ordered his cavalry to immediately 
charge at full gallop. — Many a martyr has died rather than to 
deny his faith.— You need to do nothing more than to call his 
attention to the fact. — I shall try to have seen you before to- 
morrow. — How can I cause my ideas flow more rapidly ? — Some 
credulous minds can be made believe anything. — What went ye 
out for to see ? — You should not have told her to have re- 
turned so soon. — I wish you to thoroughly understand the sub- 
ject. 



CONSTRUCTION OF PARTICIPLES. 237 

LESSON LXXXVI. 

PARTICIPLES. — FALSE SYNTAX 



RULE XIII.— Participles. 

651. Participles are used independently, or relate 
to the substantives whose meaning they qualify or 
limit. 

Examples. Used independently. — There is no way of becoming a thor- 
ough scholar without patient study. — Judging from appearances, the west 
will soon be settled. — It is dangerous standing so near the edge of the 
precipice. — What is worth doing at all is worth doing well. 

Relating to substantives. — Tliey continued praying. — / intend starting 
immediately. — Cease [you] tormenting me. — Rewarded with the lucrative 
office of master of the mint, Newton enjoyed an honorable and well-de- 
served competence. 

652. A participle often stands independently in a substantive clause 
used as the subject or object of a verb ; as, u His being here is no secret." 

653. Position. — A participle generally follows its 
substantive. But, if the substantive is the subject of 
a verb, it is sometimes better to place it after the par- 
ticipial clause. See the last example in § 651. 

It always sounds ill to introduce a participial clause between a pronoun 
and the verb that agrees with it ; as, " I, worn out with fatigue, seized 
a few moments for repose." Correct by placing the participial clause 
before the substantive : " Worn out with fatigue, I seized a few moments 
for repose." 

654. "When a participle is not used independently, 
see that it is joined to the word to which it really 
relates. 

" By neglecting to punish the vicious, vice is encouraged." Wrong, 

651. Recite Rule XIII. , relating to participles. Give examples of participles 
used independently. Give examples of participles relating to substantives. 
652. WTiere does a participle often stand independently ? 653. How does a partici- 
ple stand, as regards its substantive ? Where does it sound ill to introduce a par- 
ticipial clause 1 How is suoh an arrangement to bo corrected ? 654. When a par* 



238 CONSTRUCTION OF PARTICIPLES. 

because neglecting is here joined to vice, as if vice neglected to punish the 
vicious. Correct by introducing the substantive to which neglecting really 
relates : " By neglecting to punish the vicious, we encourage vice." 

655. The participle of a transitive verb governs the 
objective. The preposition of therefore, should not be 
introduced between such a participle and its object ; 
as, " by erecting a/ 7 statues," " for controlling of elec- 
tions ". Correct by omitting of 

656. When the, an or a, this, or that, is introduced 
before a participle, the latter becomes a noun and loses 
its participial construction. 

In such cases, the construction of a noun is assumed throughout. An 
adjective, but not an adverb, may be used as a modifier ; and of must be 
introduced if an object follows : as, " by this erecting of statues," " for 
the more effectual [not effectually'] controlling of elections ". — Observe, 
however, that the common kindred noun, when there is one, is often to 
be preferred ; as, " by this erection of statues," " for the more effectual 
control of elections ". 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Fndee § 653. He, feeling his deficiencies, returned to school. 

[Corrected. — Feeling his deficiencies, he returned to school. 
The participial clause must not separate the pronoun he from the 
verb returned, which agrees with it.] 

On receipt of this news, he, thinking that he now had an op- 
portunity of advancing his fortunes, sailed for Europe. — You, after 
making all these sacrifices, will find that you have gained nothing. 
— Why should I attempt to comfort her? for she, fearing the 
worst, has closed her ears to all words of comfort. 

Under § 654. Eesting on the brow of the hill, the spires of 
the far-distant city met our view. — Accompanied as they are with 
such incessant toil, who would care for the honors of office ? — 
Groaning and reeling under its load, we saw the stage-coach 

ticiple is not used independently, to what must we see that it is joined ? 655. What 
case does the participle of a transitive verb govern ? What follows with respect 
to the preposition of 7 656. When does a participle become a noun ? In such cases, 
what construction is assumed ? What is meant by its assuming the construction 
of a noun ? What is often to be preferred to this participial noun ? 



FALSE SYNTAX. 239 

slowly ascending the hill. — While pondering which course 1 
should pursue, my horse pricked up his ears and set out briskly 
on the right-hand road, dripping with sweat and covered with 
mud. 

Uxdee § 655. There is no charity in giving of money to the 
intemperate. — By helping of others, we often help ourselves. — A 
public library was founded for promoting of the general intelli- 
gence. — True happiness generally results from doing of one's duty. 

Under § 656. There is no charity in the giving money to the in- 
temperate. — True happiness generally results from the doing one's 
duty. — This mere reading books can not educate a man truly. — 
The following an upright course is a requirement of policy as well 
as duty. — That neglecting the divine law which so often proved 
fatal to the ancient Israelites, will be found quite as fatal in our 
own case. 



LESSON LXXXVII. 

PARTICIPLES (CONTINUED). — FALSE SYNTAX. 



RULE XIV. — Possessive before a Participle. 

657. A substantive which, in stead of being modi- 
fied by a participle, is made to modify the latter, is put 
in the possessive case. 

Examples. — Who first conceived the idea of the moon's being in- 
habited ? — I have no objection to his becoming a merchant. — Did you hear 
of my teaching school at Huntsville ? — They were surprised at her reading 
so well. 

658. A participle thus modified by a substantive in the possessive case 
is used independently. 

659. A participle modified by a substantive in the possessive does 
not become a noun. This is shown by its sometimes taking an object 
and being modified by an adverb, — like the participle taking in this sen- 
tence. 

657. Recite Rule XIV., relating to a substantive modifying a participle. Give 
examples, and in each tell what the possessive modifies. 658. How is a participle 
modified by a possessive used ? 659. Prove that a participle modified by a Bub- 



24:0 POSSESSIVE BEFOKE A PARTICIPLE. 

660. "When a participle relates to a substantive, the 
substantive is the leading word. When a participle is 
modified by a possessive, the participle is the leading 
word. Use, therefore, the former of these constructions, 
if the substantive denotes the leading subject of dis- 
course ; the latter, if the participle denotes it. 

" Cicero, fearing an outbreak, bade Catiline leave the city." It was 
Cicero that bade Catiline leave ; hence we make the noun Cicero the sub- 
ject, and join the participle to it as a modifier. " Cicero, allowing Cati- 
line to leave the city, may appear strange to some." Wrong, because it 
is not Cicero that may appear strange, but his allowing Catiline to leave 
the city. We therefore change Cicero to the possessive, that it may mod- 
ify the participle, and make the whole participial clause the subject of the 
verb may appear : " Cicero's allowing Catiline to leave the city may ap- 
pear strange to some." 

661. If the use of the participle is attended with 
awkwardness or obscurity, substitute for it a noun, an 
infinitive, a finite verb with that, or some other equiva- 
lent construction. 

"A man's utterly neglecting the laws of health must sooner or later 
bring on disease." Correct thus : " An utter neglect of the laws of health 
must sooner or later bring on disease." " They refuse accepting the offered 
mercy." Say, " They refuse to accept," or simply " They refuse the of- 
fered mercy." " I remember its being considered quite a voyage to ascend 
the Hudson to Albany." Improve thus : "I remember that it was consid- 
ered," &c. " The English language's containing so many synonymes is 
explained by our having drawn our words from so many different sources." 
Very awkward, and inadmissible; say, "The fact that the English lan- 
guage contains so many synonymes is explained by our having drawn our 
words from so many different sources." 

stantive in the possessive does not become a nonn. 660. When a participle relates 
to a substantive, which is the leading word ? When a participle is modified by a 
substantive, which is the leading word ? How are we to choose between these 
constructions ? Illustrate this. 661. What must be done, if the use of the par- 
ticiple is attended with awkwardness or obscurity ? G-ive an example in which a 
noun should be substituted for the participle. Give one in which an infinitive 
should be substituted. Give one in which a finite verb with that should be substi- 
tuted. 



CONSTRUCTION OF PAETICIPLES. 241 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Under § 657. There is no hope of such a man keeping pace 
with the spirit of the age. 

[Corrected. — There is no hope of such a man's keeping pace 
with the spirit of the age. Man must be changed to the posses- 
sive marts, to modify the participle keeping.] 

A sense of self-respect prevents us indulging in recrimination. — 
Have you ever heard of a pear being grafted on a mountain-ash ? — 
There is no probability of Stephen arriving to-day. — What do you 
think of him visiting Germany ? — Even the tops of mountains fur- 
nish us with evidence of the world having been overflowed by a 
deluge. 

Under § 660. Some people think there is no advantage in 
children studying Greek. — Plutarch, commencing the study of 
Latin when nearly eighty years old, appears almost incredible. — I 
can not understand them refusing to receive you. — I place no con- 
fidence in a man's boasting of what he can do. 

Under § 661. We shall hereafter forbear endeavoring to con- 
ciliate them. — A nation's extending its territory too widely has 
sometimes proved fatal to its existence. — The having committed 
yourself to an error is no excuse for continuing in that error. — 
Arnold's betraying of the trust reposed in him was unpardonable. — 
This accidental discovering of gold in Australia led to the emigra- 
tion of thousands thither. 

Miscellaneous. — Active measures were taken for the more 
speedily restoring of order. — It is not by the adding to what we 
have, but by the cutting off artificial wants, that we become truly 
rich. — Now is the time for retrenching of unnecessary expenses 
and diligently employing of every moment. — Such an emptying 
purses was perhaps never seen before. — I can not approve of any 
one's persisting in such deceit. — Among the most important du- 
ties of the Christian is setting of a good example to his fellow 
men. 

The doing justice to so complicated a case will require the conr 
suiting many authorities. — By teaching of others we learn many 
things ourselves. — Is there any prospect of a telegraph cable 
being laid across the Atlantic ? — There is some doubt of the Cru- 
sades having benefited Europe. — Who ever heard of a hyena being 

tamed ? 

11 



242 THE ADVERB. 

LESSON LXXXVIII. 

ADVERBS. -FALSE SYNTAX. 



RULE XY.— The Advef^ 

662. An adverb relates to the word or words whose 
meaning it modifies, or stands independently in the 
sentence. 

Examples. — Try hard. — Far out at sea, we saw a very singular sight. — 
Are you quite in the dark ? Yes. — We shall certainly leave before he ar- 
rives. — By and by there was a great noise. — You may go further and fare 
worse ; consequently, you might as well remain. 

663. Do not use how, as how, or how that, for 
the conjunction that ; or how, for lest or that not. 

" She said as how she would come." " Have a care how you listen to 
the tempter." Correct thus : " She said that she would come." " Have a 
care that you do not listen to the tempter." 

664:. Do not use the adverb no for not. 

No is used independently in answering questions ; or it may modify 
an adjective or adverb in the comparative degree. But it must not be 
joined to an adjective in the positive degree, or to a verb, expressed or 
understood. We say no wiser, no sooner ; but, " Handsome or not [that 
is, not handsome], I admire her." "Will you promise or not [that is, not 
promise] ? " In the last two examples, no would be wrong. 

665. In expressing a negation, do not use two nega- 
tives in the same clause or member ; as, " I did not do 
nothing" " It makes no difference to you nor me." 
Correct by omitting or changing one of the negatives : 
a I did not do anything," or " I did nothing." " It 
makes no difference to you or me." 

662. Recite Rule XV., relating to adverbs. Give examples, and in each men. 
tion to what the adverb relates. 663. What must not be used for the conjunction 
that ? 664. What must not be used for not ? How may no be used ? What may 
it modify ? To what must it not be joined ? Illustrate this. 665. In expressing 



CONSTRUCTION AND POSITION OF ADVEKBS. 243 

666. Exceptions. — 1. A negative may be repeated in the same clause 
or member ; as, u Not rank, not wealth, constitutes true happiness." 

2. Two correlative negatives maybe used; as, "Neither rank not 
wealth constitutes true happiness." 

3. A negative, and a derivative formed with a negative prefix, may be 
used together, to express an affirmation ; as, u Nor is it improper" — that 
is, it is proper. 

667. Two negatives formerly strengthened the negation, and were used 
for this purpose by old writers. Thus in Beaumont and Fletcher we read, 
" By no means be not seen." While we have discarded such constructions 
generally, we still retain another negative with but in the common form of 
expression can not but. " I can not but rejoice." 

668. The rules laid down for the comparative and 
the superlative degree in § 612, 613, under adjectives, 
apply also to adverbs. 

The former of the terms compared must be excluded from the latter 
when the comparative is used, but included when we use the superlative. 
" The elephant is said to live longer than any other animal." " The ele- 
phant is said to live the longest of all animals [not of any animal]" 

669. Position. — Adverbs should stand near the 
words to which they relate. They generally precede 
adjectives, stand after the first auxiliary in compound 
tenses, and in other tenses follow the verb. Observe 
the position of the adverbs in the following ex- 
amples : — 

Examples. — Quite pretty ; very pretty; so pretty ; pretty enough. — He 
was easily saved. — He was saved easily enough. — He might easily have 
been saved. — He ought to be seriously reprimanded. — Always dare to act 
right. — Never betray a trust. — Having never betrayed a trust, I can look 
my neighbors proudly in the face. — Down came the rain. — The rain came 
down. 

When there is a choice of positions, select the one that best suits 
the ear. 



a negation, what must not be used ? 666. In what two cases may two negatives be 
used ? With what kind of a derivative may a negative be used ? 667. What was 
formerly the effect of two negatives? What construction with a double negative 
have we retained ? 668. What principles apply to the comparative and the super- 
lative degree of adverbs ? 669. Give the rule for the position of adverbs, and Vk 



244: POSITION OF ADVERBS. 

670. Care must be taken to place only and not only 
next to the word or words they are intended to mod- 
ify. Otherwise they give a wrong impression of the 
meaning. 

If I say, " He only hires the store," only modifies hires, and the im- 
pression conveyed is that another verb will follow : He only hives the 
store, he does not own it. If I say, " He hires only the store," only modi- 
fies store, and the meaning is, He hires the store, but nothing else — not 
the rest of the house. 

" He not only reads Latin but Greek." Wrong, because not only is 
so placed as to modify reads, as if some other verb were to follow : He 
not only reads Latin, but also writes it. But not only is intended to modi- 
fy Latin, and must therefore be placed next to it: "He reads not only 
Latin but Greek." 

671. So, the adverbs chiefly, mostly, &c, must stand immediately be- 
fore or after an adjunct that they are intended to modify; as, " The pro- 
ductions consist mostly [not mostly consist] of corn and cotton." "It 
was by hunting and fishing chiefly that the Indians subsisted," — not, " It 
was by hunting and fishing that the Indians chiefly subsisted." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Under § 663, 664. "We thus see how afflictions are often sent 
for our good. — Do you think as how it will rain to-day ? — Kossuth 
heard how that the army had surrendered. — Take care how you 
associate with the wicked. — It is uncertain whether the planets 
are inhabited or no. — Eeady or no, you must start at once. — All 
men grow old, whether they will or no. 

Under § 665. Don't you care for nobody ? — Nothing was 
never gained by dishonesty. — No other king of Israel was so wise 
nor powerful as Solomon. — Let no one at no time speak irrever- 
ently in your presence unrebuked. — In this connection no prin- 
ciples can be laid down, nor no rules given, that will cover every 
point. — We can not in no way ascertain the exact size of the fixed 
stars. 

lustrate it with examples. When there is a choice of positions, by what must we 
be guided ? 670. What caution is given in the case of only and not only ? Prove 
by an example that a change in the position of only alters the meaning. Show how 
not only may be placed incorrectly. 671. How must the adverbs chiefly, mostly 
&c, stand 1 ? 



FALSE SYNTAX. 245 

Under § 668. Eailroads open up a country the most rapidly 
of any internal improvements. — Chess fascinates its votaries more, 
perhaps, than any game. — Of all other bubbles, the Mississippi 
Scheme terminated the most disastrously. — Linnaeus was the most 
enthusiastic and industrious of other naturalists. 

Under § 669. He must have certainly been detained. — They 
twice give, that quickly give. — Trust the wicked not. — Having not 
studied Italian, you can not so well enjoy the beauties of Petrarch 
as otherwise you might do. — Think of Balboa now, as the broad 
Pacific burst on his enraptured eyes gloriously. — If we ever so 
little transgress the laws of nature, ultimately we rue it. 

Under § 670, 671. We not only obtained Louisiana, but 
Florida also, by purchase. — If education refined only the manners, 
we might do without it ; but it also disciplines the mind and im- 
proves the heart. — California not only produces gold in great 
abundance, but quicksilver also. — The Eussians mostly belong to 
the Greek church. — It was by the English, French, Spanish and 
Dutch, that the new world was principally colonized. 



LESSON LXXXIX. 

PREPOSITIONS. — FALSE SYNTAX. 



RULE XVI.— The Preposition. 

672. A preposition shows the relation that a substan- 
tive, infinitive, or participle bears to some other word 
or words in the sentence. 

Examples. — Contrary to my expectations, I found the performances 
about to begin. — Without concealing anything, tell me whether he is out 
of danger. — The silvery beams fell aslant the earth. — Pursue your way 
with a bold heart, trusting to Him, who is ever a sure help in time of 
need. 

673. After certain verbs, by is used before a word denoting an agent 
or living object, with before a word denoting an instrument or inanimate 

672. Recite Rule XVI., relating to prepositions. Give examples, and point out 
in each the terms of the relation denoted by the preposition. 673. How ar* by 



246 



CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS. 



object. We say, accompanied by his friends, accompanied with illustra- 
tions; attended by a servant, attended with evil consequences; illustrated 
by an artist, with engravings ; killed by an assassin, with a dagger. Fob 
lowed takes by only. 

674. Between and betwixt must be used of two objects only ; among 
and amongst, of three or more ; as, " Between you and me, I will divide 
this farm among my three sons." 

675. Certain prepositions must follow certain words c 
Even the same word sometimes takes different prepo- 
sitions, according to tlie sense in which it is used. The 
pupil will find below a list of words with the proper 
preposition annexed, covering those cases in which 
there is the greatest tendency to error. 



Abhorrent to. 

Accommodate (adapt) one thing to 
another ; (supply) a person with. 

Accuse of, not with. 

Acquaint with. 

Acquit of. 

Adapted to. 

Adequate to. 

Adhere, adherence, to. 

Angry with a person, at a thing. 

Antipathy to, against. 

Arrive at, in, not to. 

Averse to, from. 

Bestow on. 

Charge a thing on a person ; a per- 
son with a thing. 

Compare with (in respect of quali- 
ty) ; to (by way of illustration). 
" I compare Pope with Dryden, 
hope to an anchor." 



Confide in. 

Conform, conformity, to, with. 

Copy after a person, from nature. 

Correspond with, to. 

Deprive of. 

Die of a disease ; by an instrument, 
by one's own hand, by violence. 

Differ with a person in opinion, 
from a person or thing in some 
quality. 

Different from, not to. 

Disappointed of a thing not ob- 
tained, in a thing obtained. 

Dislike to. 

Enamoured of. 

Entrance into. 

Foreign to, from. 

Founded on or upon a basis ; in 
truth or error. 

Frightened at. 



and with used after certain verbs ? Illustrate this. What does followed taket 
674. How are between and betwixt to be distinguished in use from among and 
amongst 7 675. What is said of the necessity of using prepositions in certain 
casec ? What prepositions are used after accommodate in its different senses (see 
the list)? After compare 7 After prevail! After reconcile! When must on be 
used after charge, and when with 7 When must of be used after disappointed, 
and when in 7 When must with be used after overwhelmed* and when by 7 



CONSTKUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS. 



247 



Incorporate into, with. 

Independently of, not on. 

Initiation into. 

Inroad into. 

Liberal of what is given. 

Meddle with. 

Need of. 

Overwhelmed with a feeling, with 

shame; by an agent, by the 

waves. 
Partake, commonly of sometimes 

in. 
Participate with a person, in a 

thing. 
Prefer, preferable, to. 



Prevail on, upon, with (persuade) ; 

over, against (overcome). 
Reconcile (make friendly) to ; 

(make consistent) with. 
Redolent of. 
Remonstrate with a person, against 

a thing. 
Rid of 

Skilful in, at. 

Smile at, (to express favor) on. 
Suitable to, for. 
Sympathize with. 
Vest a thing in a person, a person 

with a thing. 
Weary of. 



FALSE SYNTAX. 

Under § 673. Here is a life of Johnson, accompanied by co- 
pious extracts from his writings. 

[Corrected. — Here is a life of Johnson, accompanied with co- 
pious extracts from his writings. By must be changed to with, 
because accompanied is followed by with, before a word denoting 
an inanimate object.] 

The queen was attended with a large retinue ; her arrival was 
hailed by rejoicings. — Here our travellers were surrounded with 
a troup of monkeys. — My departure was attended by many mis- 
givings. — With whom were you accompanied? — We were over- 
come by sorrow. — The good ship sunk, overwhelmed with the 
surging waters. 

Under § 674. Distribute these presents between James and 
his brothers. — I never before saw so great a resemblance among 
twins. — A quarrel arose amongst the old soldiers and the recruits.— 
He divides his time betwixt law, medicine, and politics. 

Under § 675. We all have need for some one on whom we can 
confide. — Long and bitterly have I repented for the crime with 
which I am now accused. — Every person should conform his 
practice with his preaching. — She smiles at all that profess to be 
enamoured with her. — Harius was liberal with his money, and 
still more liberal in promises. — Eid yourself from such prejudices, 



248 CONSTRUCTION OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

or people will be disgusted at yon. — Meddle not in what does not 
concern you. 

Your theory seems to be founded on truth, yet it is quite dif- 
ferent to any that I have hitherto heard advanced. — Profit from 
the lessons thus taught. — How do you reconcile his professions to 
his conduct. — This should be incorporated in the book. — I am 
compelled to differ from you. — Far preferable is a private life 
than this constant turmoil. — Honey redolent with spring per- 
fumed the air. — For the unfortunate the good man always sympa- 
thizes, but not for the wicked. 



LESSON XC. 

CONJUNCTIONS.— FALSE SYNTAX. 



RULE XVII.— The Conjunction. 

676. A conjunction connects words, sentences > or 
parts of a sentence. 

Examples. — Notwithstanding, if you will examine the subject more 
closely, you will see that I am right. — Let us do right, whether other men 
do so or not. — Yet no lyric poet is more sublime than he. — Pindar, than 
who no lyric poet is more sublime, was a Theban. — They overran Italy, and 
the Eastern Empire as well. 

677. Do not use if for whether, — or but, but that, or 
lest for that, — after the verbs doubt, fear, deny, or their 
equivalents. 

" Do you know if [correct to whether] a train will start this evening ? * 
"Pope was apprehensive lest [say that] his meaning might be mistaken." 
" Nobody can deny but that [say that] experience is the best teacher." 

678. Do not use but for than, after else, other, or 
otherwise. 



676. Recite Rule XVII., relating to conjunctions. Give examples, and in each 
tell what the conjunction connects. 677. What must not be used for whet her 1 
What must not be used for that ? Give examples of the improper use of these 
conjunctions. 678. What conjunction must be used after else, other, and otherwise J- 



CONSTRUCTION OF CONJUNCTIONS. 249 

"Prevarication is nothing else but [correct to than] falsehood.* 
4< There is no other way of pleasing some people but [say than] by flat- 
tering them." " Who could do otherwise but [say than] accept so cordial 
an invitation ? " 

679. Than, which is used after the comparative de- 
gree, is always a conjunction, and does not govern the 
objective case. 

Milton says "than whom none higher sat"; and other writers, follow- 
ing him, have construed than with the objective, as if it were a preposi- 
tion. This is ungrammatical and should be avoided. Than has no gov- 
erning power, but is followed by the nominative, possessive, or objective, 
according to the relation sustained to some word or words understood. 
" You are taller than he [is]." " Your hand is larger than his [hand]." 
" I love you more than [I love] him. 11 " Than who [sat] none higher sat." 
" Than whose [head] no head is higher." " Than [I love] whom I love 
none more." 

680. When two words or clauses joined by a con- 
junction have a common connection with some third 
word or clause, this last term must be adapted in con- 
struction to both of the preceding ones. 

" Henry is older, but not so large, as Thomas." Wrong, because the 
last term as can not be properly used with the first term older ; we can 
not say older as Thomas. For a similar reason it is wrong to say, " He is 
older, but not so tall, than Thomas." Correct thus: " Henry is older than 
Thomas, but not so tall." 

" You can not bestow or bequeath it to a more deserving person." We 
can not say bestow to. Change bestow to give, and then the preposition to 
will be applicable to both verbs : " You can not give or bequeath it to a 
more deserving person." 

681. Certain conjunctions are used in contiguous 

What must not be used after them ? 679. "What is said of than? What expres- 
sion does Milton use ? With what have other writers construed than ? What ia 
said of this construction? What determines the case of the substantive following 
than? Give examples. 680. What is required, when two words or clauses 
joined by a conjunction have a common connection with some third word or 
clause ? Illustrate this rule. 681. When are conjunctions said to be correlatives ? 
Mention some correlative conjunctions. What must be used as the correlative of 
neither 1 What correlatives must be used after a negative denying equality of de* 
gree? 

11* 



250 FALSE SYNTAX. 

clauses as correlatives : as, though^ yet • hath, and ; 
either ■, or / whether > or. 

There is no liability to error in the use of these correlatives, except in 
two cases. 

1. Be careful to use nor, not or, as the correlative of neither. " Neither 
youth nor [not or] innocence availed as a protection." 

2. Be careful to use so, as — not as, as — after a negative denying 
equality of degree. "Few ancient cities were so [not as] magnificent as 
Babylon." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Under § 677. I doubt if the world ever saw such a fleet 
before. 

[ Corrected. — I doubt whether the world ever saw such a fleet 
before. If must not be used for whether.] 

It is uncertain if a swan lives longer than a raven. — Can you 
tell me if the Danube is the longest river in Europe? — I am fear- 
ful lest the storm may overtake them. — There is no doubt but that 
Germany has produced many great men. — You certainly can not 
doubt but he will keep his promise. 

Under § 678. Washington had nothing else at heart but his 
country's good. — Never act otherwise but honorably. — What other 
motive but the purest patriotism could have stimulated him to 
such sacrifices ? — She would not have done it for any one else but 
him. 

Under § 679. There are many noble women, but none nobler 
than her. — Even Blair, than whom few rhetoricians stand higher, 
frequently makes grammatical mistakes. — I look on none with 
more contempt than they. 

Under § 680. Quicksilver is not so useful, but more valuable, 
than iron. — The moon is nearer, though not so bright, as the sun. 
— This honor should be conferred and confined to the best stu- 
dent. — The road is longer and inferior to what we supposed it 
would be. — Sin is generally accompanied and followed by re- 
proaches of conscience. 

Under § 681. Such idlers should neither be pitied or assisted. 
— Neither the wastes of Sahara or the parched plains of central 
Australia seem to have been designed for the habitation of man 
or beast. — Neither Europe or Africa is as large as Asia. — Nothing 



FALSE SYNTAX 251 

else pleases a weak mind as much as flattery. — Few lived as 
plainly as Mohammed. 



LESSON XCI. 

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE IN FALSE SYNTAX. 

682. Further exercises in false syntax, promiscuously 
arranged, are now presented for correction. They may 
be divided into lessons of convenient length. 

You and me — the Almighty hath created "both. — I wish I was 
her ! Yes, but to be her is impossible. — No one could have acted 
more gallantly than him who bore the standard of the legion. — 
This ring is almost as dear to me as her who gave it. — And thee 
too, brave son of Abas — I saw thee fall. — The principal is not only 
due, but also five years interest. 

The first of April is called All fools Day. — Beds are stuffed 
with cat-tails', but not with cats' tails. — For common decency 
sake, be silent. — John Ray, his book. — Demosthenes orations are 
more nervous than ^Eschines. — I have read Cowper and Pope's 
Translation of Homer ; the one is in rhyme, the other in blank 
verse. — Here is the three judges' of the supreme court opinion. — 
The historian Josephus works are written in Greek. 

Victoria's and Albert's eldest daughter has married the prince 
of Prussia. — Bancroft's, the historian's, reputation is deservedly 
great. — The governor's of Texas life has been an eventful one. — 
These volumes are Mr. Hay's clerk's wife's brother's. — Rumors 
of the death of the captain of the Star of the "West, of Liverpool, 
were current in "Wall Street. — He who is wise in his own conceit 
I never could tolerate. — Two court-martials were held. 

Send up fifty pound of butter, some pickled sheeps' tongues, 
and ten heads of fat cattle. — Let all good men rejoice at this, even 
he who has never rejoiced before. — I do not wish for any coffee 
this morning. — Distribute a few pence among those two poor 
dwarves. — Beware evil practices. — Montezuma was denied even 
this slight favor. — David and Jonathan loved one another. 

La Fayette was voted a township of land and two hundred 
thousand dollars by Congress. — Those men, who thought them* 



252 MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE 

selves more wiser than others, have fallen a victim to their own 
passions. — Were you paid the money ? — Oxford University is of 
eight centuries old. — Each pupil is expected to govern themselves. 
— The mob, having next broken into some jewellers stores, begun 
to fill its pockets with precious stones. 

Whom do you suppose it was ? — Who do you suppose it to be? 
^-Where have you bought them pencils ? At Mr. Tilden's, the 
bookseller's. — Those who consider themselves a good critic are 
tiot so considered always by others. — I will lend you my 
tweezers, if you would be sure to return it. — The people of 
Finland is called Finns 1 . — Be sure not to tell nobody whom you 
are. 

He was able to have supported himself and family, and cer- 
tainly ought to. — Nothing hurts my feelings more nor as much 
as a friend's betraying of the trust I have reposed on him. — Every 
soldier exerted themselves to the utmost, as if on them alone de- 
pended the issue of the battle. — Full many a good man is over- 
looked in this world ; but in the world to come his good deeds 
will be remembered. — He said as how he would come. 

Saturn is surrounded with three bright rings, the inner one 
of which is nineteen thousand miles from the surface of the 
planet. — The jury could not agree, and so the judge allowed it 
to separate. — The board of directors looked gravely; in fact a 
frown begun to settle on its face. — Can nothing be done to induce 
this fop and coxcomb to abandon their folly ? — These here mos- 
quitoes are very troublesome. — It was this same Cortez who con- 
quered Mexico. 

Saint and sinner will rise together at the last day, to hear his 
doom pronounced. — The most beautiful people which are known 
are the Circassians. — It seems as if one or the other must lose 
their life in the conflict.— Otis, as well as Hancock, raised their 
voices against this new aggression. — Some German critics main- 
tain (which I can not believe) that no such man as Homer never 
lived.— Neither John or his wife seem to care much for the ex- 
ample they set their children. 

Elizabeth, and her father Henry also, had their favorites.— 
Not only Charlemagne, but Haroun al Easchid also, rose superior 
to the princes of their time. — Every man has certain rights from 
which they can not be deprived. — Francis did not remain long in 



IN FALSE SYNTAX. 253 

the school his father placed him. — ISTo substance which yet has 
been discovered is as heavy as iridium. 

There are two species of buffalo : one inhabiting the northern 
parts of Europe, and which has become very scarce ; the other, 
a native of America, and which is more properly called the 
ki son . — God watches over us as a father, who He is even to 
the most unworthy of His creatures. — The conversation turned 
on the generals and battles who had decided the fate of em- 
pires. 

Hand me that tongs. — He lets houses and collects rents, and 
by this means manages to live. — The very events which we most 
deplore sometimes turn out most fortunately. — One or the other 
of us are greatly mistaken in their opinion. — Both parties can not 
be right ; you or we must be mistaken in your views. — If either 
the king or queen knew the condition of their subjects, they would 
do their utmost to relieve them. 

A snake was never seen there, that I know of [as far as 1 
Tcnow], — Who can be expected to remember the names of all 
the authors and books which the present century has produced ? 
— They say, which I do not believe, that some people die of a 
broken heart. — The rattle-snake, one of the most poisonous of 
reptiles, and who grows from four to six feet in length, is only 
found in America. 

Every one should try to distinguish themselves in their pro- 
fession. — Measure out five bushel of this oats. — The old and new 
house were both burnt. — Holland, a country that has been rescued 
from the sea, and which possesses very little natural advantages, 
has been converted into one vast garden by the industry of its 
inhabitants. — We have some beautiful variegated pansies ; here is 
a yellow and a blue one. 

I admit it is dry, the study of grammar. — Eobert promises his 
father that he would take his advice and try hard to pay his debts. 
— Send home a couple of gallon of those same molasses we have 
been using. — Pope at one time studied painting, but Nature had 
made him a greater poet than an artist. 

An ant is a model of provident industry ; a grasshopper is a 
type of thoughtless indolence. — The self-devotion, no less than 
courage, of La Fayette, commands our admiration. — It is plain 
from the movements of that poor child that it is grieving for his 



254 MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE 

brother.— Old stout gentlemen are generally good-humored. — - 
When Talent and Industry contend for the prize, the latter is the 
oftenest winner. 

The price of cotton is fallen. — She moves very graceful. — The 
whole family have lovelily carried out the principles of their re- 
ligion. — The room was not sufficiently het. — They had sawed the 
wood before I seen what they was doing. — Name each king of 
England in succession. [As succession implies more than one, it 
should be Name the Icings, &c] 

Who can contemplate without a shudder the hereafter life of 
the wicked ? — It is thou that has ruined me. — The " Pleasures of 
Hope " were written by Campbell. — The moon was by this time 
risen. — A humble mind is ever ready for to acknowledge its faults. 
— Every person has" their friends and enemies ; the former he 
should seek to conciliate, the latter to confirm in their attachment. 
i — Croesus had much possessions. 

He is entirely undeserving commendation. — Texas or Florida, 
if not both, were admitted into the Union in 1845. — The people 
is united in its determination to have the most universal freedom 
of suffrage. — You should have made them have shook those car- 
pets before this. — The indifference, nay the neglect, of the world, 
too often blight the aspirations of genius. — I wish that I was in 
Europe. 

The news of the Constellation's being wrecked and the greater 
part of her crew's being lost, were received this morning. — I have 
heard how that the human body contains about thirty pounds of 
blood. — " Crime and Mystery " have just been published. — Neither 
arguments or force was able to make any impression. — Do not 
desert your father or mother in their old age. 

The mind whence such sentiments could come, must be de- 
praved hopelessly. — Napoleon found Moscow in flames, which 
was totally unexpected. — Was you able to buy me a brass com- 
passes ? — Them shoes are not too large ; I have no fears but what 
they will answer. — In the torrid zone, a wet and dry season 
take the place of winter and summer. — Prudence and courage 
are both essential to the good general ; this in the council, that 
on the field. 

Neither the horse or the mule have as great powers of en- 
durance as the camel. — The phenomena observed last evening 



IN FALSE SYNTAX. 255 

was well worth seeing. — The youngest of my two brother-in-laws 
is the shrewdest. — He, tired of life, declared that nothing but 
tnals and disappointments are met with in the world. — In aban- 
doning of the throne, Charles V. hoped to have regained the 
peace of mind which he had long been deprived of. — Have you 
waken your friend ? 

A rose by any other name would smell as sweetly. — California 
is now producing more gold than any country in the world. — 
London is further north than any other city in America.— If Xerxes 
had have succeeded in conquering Greece, what incalculable 
changes would have been made in the world's history ! — I have and 
ever shall insist on the necessity of strict economy on the part of 
government. — The rain disappointed us in our excursion; we 
could not go. 

Your garden looks much better since you wed it. — To what 
conclusion do you arrive ? — Making the experiment, air was 
found to be impenetrable. — Where has the snuffers gone ? — It 
must have been hard to have endured such sufferings. — He does 
not mean to deliberately affront us. — Why have you not kept the 
promise you have made when I was at your house ? 

A honorable man looks down upon the deceitful with su- 
premest contempt. — La Fayette is the best character of any in 
French history. — He is one of those unfortunates that is always 
discontented with his lot. — Has that suds been thrown out ? — We 
have now a more promising, wider, and pleasanter field for opera- 
tions. — A few hours delay is not of much consequence. 

The crew is loud in its complaints. — The mule, if it is less 
handsome than the horse, is certainly the most enduring. — Which 
is the brightest of those two stars ? — The ladies of old times seem 
to implicitly have believed that they would preserve their beauty 
by washing in dew. — I, reflecting on the mutability of human 
things, came to the conclusion that all was vanity and vexation 
of spirit. 

He has waxen all the threads. — Cairo is the largest of any city 
in Africa. — Anger is a scorpion that stings itself; take care that 
thou dost not find it so. — The earliest experiments with the air- 
pump showed that air was essential to life and combustion. — Of 
what use are fierceness of gesture or loudness of tone to the 
orator ? — Have a care how you give way to the first advances of 



256 FALSE SYNTAX. 

sin. — The way how they give their china ware such a lively color- 
ing is a secret. 

The question is whether the people should elect judges or no. — 
The heathens are perished out of the land. — I told him that if he 
went to-morrow I shall go with him. — Dwarf pear-trees are some- 
times loaded down hy fruit. — Where is Kobert, Jane, and Frank? 
I have some cherries to divide between them. 

A machine has been invented for the more easily and econom- 
ically elevating of grain to such heights as may be required. — . 
Just think of me entering into one of the fashionable saloons of 
Saratoga in such a garb. — No Koman emperor was so cruel nor 
tyrannical as Nero. — The Swiss have defended their liberties the 
most resolutely of any other nation. 

The manufactures of Belgium chiefly consist of laces, silks, and 
carpets. — Can I not prevail over you to return with me ? — Your 
hat is altogether prettier and preferable to mine. — I have no other 
friend but thou. — Ben Jonson says that the poet Spenser died by 
want. — There were some disagreeable persons along, and so we 
was disappointed of our excursion. 

The weary sailors heard with delight the woods and groves to 
reecho the notes of countless songsters, and saw with rapture the 
trees to bend under a load of fruit. — You must have felt the needle 
have passed into the flesh. — A diphthong consists of two vowels' 
forming one sound. — It is singular how an uneducated tinker could 
have produced such a great work. 

Willing or no, we must all die.— An eclipse of the moon is 
caused *by the earth getting between it and the sun. — No disease 
was more loathsome nor more dreaded by the people than lep- 
rosy. — Cotton, as a crop, is more valuable, but not so certain, as 
corn. — She will not sing for anybody else but he. — She had rather 
stay, if you will promise to stay with her. — They dared not to 
start. 

He no sooner entered into the house but he came rushing out 
again with these bad news. — Whom, when they had scourged him, 
they let him go. — Thou shouldst treasure up these counsels deep 
in your heart. — When money is to be made, be it never so little, 
every man strives their best to be first on the ground. — They 
compose the easiest, that have learned to compose. 



EXILES FOR THE USE OF CAPITALS. 257 

LESSON XOIL 

RULES FOR CAPITALS 

683. Most words commence with small letters= 
Capitals must be used when required by the following 
rules, and only then : — 

RULES FOR THE USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS. 

684. Begin with a capital, 

I. Every sentence and every line of poetry. 

Examples. — Forget others' faults. — How bright the day ! — What is 
fame ? — Custom forms us all. 

" Time is the warp of life ; oh ! tell 
The young, the fair, to weave it well." 

II. All proper nouns, and titles of office, honor, and 
respect. 

Examples. — Henry the Fowler, emperor of the Germans ; Robert Roe, 
Esquire ; Elizabeth Barrett Browning ; the Red River ; the Strait of Gib- 
raltar ; High Bridge ; Union Square ; the Superior Court of the City of 
New York ; July ; Monday. 

HT. All adjectives formed from proper nouns. 

Examples. — African, Italian, Welsh, Ciceronian; also adjectives de- 
noting a sect or religion — Methodist, Puritan, Catholic, Protestant. 

IY. Common nouns, when personified in a direct 
and lively manner ; not when sex merely is attributed 
to an inanimate object. 

Examples. — Then War waves his ensanguined sword, and fair Peact 
flees sighing to some happier land. — But, The sun pursues his fiery course : 
the moon sheds her silvery beams. 

Y. All appellations of the Deity, and the persona? 
pronouns Thou and He standing for His name. 

683. How do most words commence ? 684. Recite Rule I. for the use of capi- 
tals. In each example, tell which word begins with a capital according to the 
rule. Recite Rule II. "What adjectives must begin with capitals ? When must 
common nouns begin with capitals? Recite Rule V. "When must a quoted 



258 RULES FOR THE USE OF CAPITALS. 

Examples. — The Almighty ; the King of kings ; the Eternal Essence ; 
Jehovah ; the Supreme Being ; our Father. 

VI. The first word of a complete quoted sentence,, 
not introduced by that, if, or any other conjunction. 

Examples. — Thomson says, "Success makes villains honest." But, 
Thomson says that " success makes villains honest." 

VII. Every noun, adjective, and verb in the titles 
of books and headings of chapters. 

Examples. — Butler's "Treatise on the History of Ancient Philoso- 
phy" ; Cousin's " Lectures on the True, the Beautiful, and the Good ". 

VIII. Words that denote the leading subjects of 
chapters, articles, or paragraphs* 

A word defined, for instance, may commence with a capital. — Do not 
introduce capitals too freely under this rule. When in doubt, use a small 
letter. 

IX. The pronoun /and the interjection O. 

X. Words denoting great events, eras of history, 
noted written instruments, extraordinary physical phe- 
nomena, and the like. 

Examples. — The Creation ; the Confusion of Languages ; the Restora- 
tion ; the Dark Ages ; the Declaration of Independence ; the Aurora 
Borealis. 

XI. Letters standing for words are generally written 
as capitals. 

Examples. — a. d., for anno Domini, in the year of our Lord ; LL.D., 
for legum doctor, doctor of laws. 

EXERCISE. 

Correct the small letters and capitals improperly used. 

Under Eule I. — order is heaven's first Law. — All Truth is? 



sentence commence with a capital, and when not? Recite Rule VII., relating to 
the titles of books. Recite Rule VIII. What may commence with a capital 
under this rule ? What caution is given ? Recite Rule IX. Recite Rule X., re- 
lating to words denoting great events, &c. Recite Rule XI., relating to letters. 
What does a. d. stand for? What does LL.D. stand for? How are these abbre* 
viations written ? 



EXERCISE ON CAPITALS. 259 

Precious. — how Fortune plies her Sports ! — is not hope a flatterer? 
—gratitude is the heart's Memory. — pay as you go. 
be thou the first true merit to befriend ; 
his praise is Lost who stays till All commend. 

Under Rule II. — The sarmatians inhabited what is now known 
as poland. — mayor grey and the Common council received gov- 
ernor hawkins and general smith at the city hall, and escorted 
them up clinton avenue to The park. — The apennines run through 
Italy. — cecil, lord burleigh, was queen elizabeth's Premier for forty 
Years. 

Under Rule III., IV. — How often we hear of welsh flannel, 
irish whiskey, scotch Ale, london porter, Swedish iron, dutch cheese, 
russian isinglass, and french Lace ! — The Spanish minister and the 
representative of the ottoman porte have just visited the british 
frigate. — Here are Byron Collars for sale.— May health paint thy 
cheeks with her brightest colors ! 

There pleasure decks her guilty Bowers, 
And dark oppression builds her Towers. 

Under Rule V., YI. — Lift up your hearts to the supreme ruler 
of the Universe. — the jews are still looking for their messiah, 
their promised saviour. — Truly has the Poet said, " the hand of 
god has written legibly." — Attila called himself "The Scourge 
of god ". — 'Tis said that " conscience is man's most faithful friend." 
— How much truth there is in this old proverb : "all is not Gold 
that glitters." 

Under Rule VII. , IX. — for the Student i think there are few 
Books more valuable than hallam's " introduction to the litera- 
ture of europe in the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth cen- 
turies." — There is much Wit in a Volume that i have lately read, 
entitled "What i saw in California; or, a three months' tour 
among the placers." Shall i reason further with you, o ungrate- 
ful men ? 

Under Rule X., XL — A truthful history of the days of 
chivalry, the crusades, and the feudal system, will find Readers 
enough. — Put your letter in the p. o. before two o'clock p. m., 
and you will receive an answer by 8 a. m. to-morrow. — S. Jones, 
m. d. 

Miscellaneous. — the moors, having conquered northern africa, 
crossed the straits of gades, now gibraltar, into spain, in 710. — 



260 EXERCISE ON CAPITALS. 

efc. paul preaclied at philippi in Thrace, a. d. 51, the first christian 
Sermon delivered in europe. 

maker, preserver, my redeemer, god ! 

whom have i in the heavens but thee alone ? 

death's but a path that must be trod, 
if man would ever pass to god. 

Next with a Shudder i beheld consumption's sunken Cheek and 
wasted Form. — o pitiless Destroyer, spare thy Victim! — i have 
read in spenser that u love is a celestial Harmony of likely hearts." 
— fervently must we all exclaim : "may the Horrors of the french 
revolution never be repeated ! " 



LESSON XCIII. 

PUNCTUATION. 

685. Punctuation is the art of dividing written lan- 
guage by points, in order that the meaning may be 
readily understood. 

686. The Punctuation-points are as follows : — 

Period, . Semicolon, ; 

Interrogation-point, ? Comma, • 



exclamation-point, 
Colon, 



Dash, — 

Parentheses, ( ) 

Brackets, [ ] 

687. The Period. — A period must be placed after 
every declarative and imperative sentence, and every 
abbreviated word ; as, " Virtue is the only nobility." 
" Obey your parents." " We write Jas. for James, 
JOT. Y. for JVew Yorh, no. for number, George I. for 
George First" 

688. When we have two distinct but kindred propositions, if they are 

685. Define Punctuation. 686. Mention the punctuation-points. 687. Givo 
the rule for the use of the period. 688. When we have two distinct but kindred 
propositions, what two modes of punctuating have we ? When must we use the 



THE PEEIOD. 



261 



short, we may either separate them with the colon or semicolon, and thus 
form one compound sentence ; or we may use the period, and thus make 
two sentences. Always follow the former course, if the propositions are 
connected by the conjunction and, for, or however ; for it is not elegant 
to commence a sentence with these conjunctions. 

" Adversity is the touch-stone of principle. Without it, a man hardly 
knows whether he is honest or not." Here a semicolon may be substi- 
tuted for the period after principle. If the propositions are connected by 
the conjunction for, a semicolon 7nust be used : u Adversity is the touch- 
stone of principle ; for without it," &c. 

689. A period after an abbreviation does not take the place of other 
points. Punctuate just as if the word were not abbreviated. But, at the 
end of a sentence closing with an abbreviation, only one period must be 
used. Thus : " Go to the P. 0., I tell you, and ask for a letter for H. 
Rob, jr., M. D." 

690. Some common abbreviations, with the meaning 
of which every one should be familiar, are now pre- 
sented. 

COMMON ABBREVIATIONS. 



A. B., Bachelor of Arts. 

A. C, ante Christum, before 

Christ. 
A. M., Master of Arts. 

A. M., ante meridiem, morning 

B. C, before Christ. 
Co., County, Company. 

Cor. Sec, Corresponding Secre- 
tary. 
D. D., Doctor of Divinity. 
Do., ditto, the same. 

D. V., deo volente, God willing. 

E. E., errors excepted. 
Esq., Esquire, 

F. K. S., Fellow of the Royal Soci- 
ety. 

Hon., Honorable. 



Id., idem, the same. 
I. e., id est, that is. 
I. H. S., Jesus hominum salvator y 

Jesus Saviour of men. 
Inst., instant, of this month. 
LL. D., Legum Doctor, Doctor of 

Laws. 
M. C, Member of Congress. 
M. D., Doctor of Medicine. 
Mem., memorandum. 
Messrs., messieurs, gentlemen. 
M. P., Member of Police. 
Mr., Mister. 
Mrs., Mistress. 
MS., manuscript. 
N. B., nota bene, mark well. 
P. M., Postmaster. 



colon or semicolon? Why? Give an example. 689. What directions are given 
for punctuating, when a period is used after an abbreviation? What is said of a 
3entence closing with an abbreviation ? 690. What point follows each abbrevia- 
tion presented in the list ? Why is there no period between the two Vs in LL, D, 7 



262 COMMON ABBREVIATIONS. 



P. M., post meridiem, evening. 

P. 0., Post Office. 

Pro tern., pro tempore, for the time. 

Prox., proximo, of next month. 

P. S., Postscript. 

Qy., Query. 

Rec. Sec, Recording Secretary. 

Rev., Reverend. 



R. R., Railroad. 

Sec, Secretary. 

St., Saint, street. 

Ult., ultimo, of last month. 

U. S. A., United States of Ameriex. 

U. S. A., United States Army. 

U. S. N., United States Navy. 

Viz., videlicet, namely. 



691. The Interrogation-point. — An interrogation* 
point must be placed after every interrogative sentence, 
member, and clause ; also, after the interjections eh 
and hey, implying a question. " Has air weight ? " 
" Air has weight ; do you not believe it ? " " You 
thought it would rain, hey ? " 

692. The Exclamation-point. — An exclamation-point 
must be placed after every exclamatory sentence, mem- 
ber, clause, and expression ; as, " How disgusting is 
vice ! " " Life is short ; how careful we should be to 
use it aright ! " " For shame ! " 

An exclamation-point must also be placed after 
every interjection except 0, eh, and hey, unless very 
closely connected with other words ; as, " Ah ! who 
could have foreseen it ? " " Pshaw ! you are trifling." 

EXERCISE. 

Introduce the period, interrogation-point, exclamation-point, 
and capitals, where they are needed : — The good are better made 
by ill — We have received good, and shall we not receive evil — 
His last words (ah how well I remember them) were, " My son, 
beware of the first advances of sin " — What singular traditions 
the Laplanders have — They asked Galileo whether he would re- 
nounce his doctrines (§ 473) — They asked Galileo, " will you re- 
nounce your doctrines" — Aim at perfection affliction is a school 



691. Where must an interrogation-point be placed? 692. Where must an exclama- 
tion-point be placed 1 After what part of speech must an exclamation-point ateo 
be used 1 



THE COLON. 263 

of virtue how silly are many of the forms of etiquette where 
was Homer born many a man addresses another as mr or esq, 
according as he dresses ill or well — Wm A Stevens A M Pres— » 
The wind is 1ST E 



LESSON XCIV. 

PUNCTUATION (CONTINUED) 

693. The Colon. — The colon indicates the next 
greatest degree of separation to that denoted by the 
period. 

694. A colon must be placed between the great di- 
visions of sentences, when minor divisions occur that 
are separated by semicolons ; as, " Man has effected 
wonders ; he is every day advancing in knowledge and 
power : yet, surpassed by nature even in her humblest 
efforts, he can not so much as make a blade of grass." 

A colon must also be placed before a formal enu- 
meration of particulars, or a direct quotation, referred 
to by the words thus, following, as follows, this, these, 
&c. " There is much, justice in this warning of Lava- 
ter : i Beware of him who hates the laugh of a child.' " 

A formal enumeration is one in which the words first, secondly, &c., 
or similar terms, are introduced. These words are set off with the comma, 
the particulars are separated by the semicolon, and before the whole enu* 
meration a colon must be placed. Thus : " There were four great empires 
in ancient times : first, the Assyrian ; second, the Persian ; third, the 
Macedonian ; and fourth, the Roman." 

695. The Semicolon. — The semicolon indicates the 
next greatest degree of separation to that denoted by 
the colon. 

693. What degree of separation does the colon indicate ? 694. Give the rule 
relating to the use of the colon between the great divisions of sentences. Give the 
rule relating to a formal enumeration of particulars. What is meant by a. formal 
enumeration? 695. What degree of separation does the semicolon indicate* 



264 THE SEMICOLON. 

696. Rule I — A semicolon must be placed between 
the members of compound sentences, unless the connec- 
tion is exceedingly close ; as " The wheel of fortune is 
ever turning ; who can say, ' I shall be uppermost to- 
morrow ' X " 

If the members are very short, and the connection is close, the comma 
may be used in stead of the semicolon; as, u Man proposes, but God dis- 
poses." 

697. Rule II — A semicolon must be placed be- 
tween the great divisions of sentences, when minor 
divisions occur that are separated by commas ; as, 
" Plato called beauty a privilege of nature ; Theocritus, 
a delightful prejudice." 

698. Rule III — A semicolon must be placed before 
an enumeration of particulars, w r hen the names of the 
objects merely are given, without any formal introduc- 
tory words ; as, " There are three cases ; the nomina- 
tive, the possessive, and the objective." 

699. Rule IV. — A semicolon must be placed before 
as, when it introduces an example ; as at the close of 
the last paragraph. 

EXERCISE. 

Insert all the points thus far treated, where they are required : 
— Five great enemies to our peace are constantly harassing us 
avarice, ambition, envy, anger, and pride — Books are our best 
friends they are ever ready with cheerful words yet how many 
there are that never have recourse to their friendly sympathy- 
Seneca sums up the matter thus " I would rather never receive 
a kindness than never bestow one " — Labor not to be rich cease 
from thine own wisdom — A good, book, in the language of the 

696. Recite Rule I. for the use of the semicolon, relating to compound sentences. 
"When may the comma be used in stead of the semicolon? 697. Recite Rule II., 
relating to the great divisions of sentences. 698. Recite Rule III., relating to an 
enumeration of particulars. 699. Recite Rule IV., relating to examples. 



THE COMMA. 265 

booksellers, is a salable one in that of tbe curious, a scarce one 
in that of men of sense, a useful one — There are three safe guides 
to eternity first a sound head secondly an honest heart thirdly an 
humble spirit — The spirit of a man will sustain his infirmity but 
a wounded spirit who can bear 



LESSON XCV. 

PUNCTUATION (CONTINUED). 

700. The Comma. — The comma indicates the least 
degree of separation denoted by any point, 

701. Rule I. — Adjuncts and clauses, not essential 
to the meaning of a sentence, or modifying the whole 
proposition, are set off with a comma on each side, 
when introduced between a subject and its verb, or 
other parts that are closely connected. 

At the commencement or end of a sentence, such 
adjuncts and clauses are set off with a comma after or 
before them, as the case may be. 

Examples. — The bones of birds, in a word, combine strength with 
lightness, in a remarkable degree. — Blankets, which derived their name 
from Thomas Blanquet, were introduced into England in 1340. — By the 
way, gunpowder was first known to the Chinese. — No one can be an atheist, 
if he will only examine his own structure. 

702. Subjects introduced by as well as, and not, &c, fall under this 
rule ; as, " Toledo, as well as Damascus, was noted for its sword-blades." 

703. Single words relating to a whole proposition, and all vocative ex- 
pressions, are also set off with the comma. " Galileo, accordingly, was 
imprisoned." " Smile, Fortune, smile on our attempt." 

704. No comma must be placed between restrictive adjuncts or clauses 
and that which they restrict; as, "All must pay the debt of nature? 
u All that glitters, is not gold." 



700. What degree of separation does the comma indicate ? 701. Recite Ruit> 
I. for the use of the comma, relating to adjuncts and clauses. At the commence- 
ment or end of a sentence, how are such adjuncts and clauses punctuated ? Give 
examples. 702. What subjects fall under this rule ? 703. What single words aro 
also set off with the comma ? 704. What is the prinoiple relating to restrictive 
12 



266 RULES FOR THE USE 

705. Rule II — A noun in apposition, modified by 
an adjunct or adjective, is generally, with its modifiers, 
set off by the comma ; as, " Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, 
was defeated by Octavius." 

706. Rule III. — A comma must be placed after the 
logical subject (§ 108) of a sentence, when it ends with 
a verb, or consists of several parts which are them- 
selves separated by the comma ; as, " All that glitters, 
is not gold." " Envy, anger, and pride, are our worst 
enemies." 

707. Rule IV. — A comma must be placed between 
short members of compound sentences, connected by 
and, but, or, nor, for, because, whereas, and other 
conjunctions ; as, " Beauty dazzles, but amiability 
charms." 

A comma must also be placed before a conjunction connecting the parts 
of a compound predicate, unless they are very short and so closely con- 
nected that no point is admissible ; as, " The sun shines on all, even the 
wicked and ungrateful." 

708. Rule V. — A comma must be placed before or 
introducing an equivalent, or a clause definiug the 
writer's meaning ; as, " Spelter, or zinc, comes chiefly 
from Germany." 

709. Rule VI. — A comma must be placed before 
and, or, and nor, preceding the last of a series of 
clauses, or words that are the same part of speech and 
in the same construction ; as, " Sunshine, cloud, and 
storm, all are sent for some wise purpose." 

710. Rule VII — When, to avoid repetition, and, 



adjuncts and clauses? 705. Recite Rule II., relating to nouns in apposition. 
706. Recite Rule III., relating to the logical subject of a sentence. 707. Recite 
Rule IV., relating to short members of compound sentences. What is the rule 
relating to a compound predicate ? 708. Recite Rule V., relating to or. 709. Re- 
pit© Rule VI., relating to and % or^ and nor. 710. Recite Rule VII., relating to tho 



OF THE COM MA . 267 

or, nor, or a verb previously used, is omitted, a comma 
takes its place. 

" Tin is found in England, Bohemia, Saxony, Malacca, and Banca." 
In stead of saying England and Bohemia and Saxony and Malacca, to avoid 
repetition we omit and, and a comma takes its place. "Methusaleh was 
the oldest man ; Samson, the strongest." Was is omitted after Samson, 
and a comma takes its place. 

711. Rule VIII. — Words used in pairs take a com- 
ma after each pair. " Joy and sorrow, cloud and sun- 
shine, are alike sent for our benefit." 

712. Rule IX. — Words repeated for the sake of em- 
phasis must be set off with their adjuncts, if they have 
any, by the comma. " Truth, truth, and nothing but 
truth, will satisfy the candid inquirer." 

EXEECISE, 

Insert the points thus far treated : — Be temperate temperate 
I say that you may avoid disease — Fashion for the most part is 
nothing but the ostentation of riches — Where if I may ask are 
the modesty and self-restraint the industry and honesty of our 
ancestors — Born four years after the crucifixion of Christ Jose- 
phus lived to witness the destruction of Jerusalem — By the Per- 
sian the Turk and the Arab carpets are ranked among the 
necessaries of life They form with his cushions and divan all his 
furniture his seat his bed his table He must have his prayer- 
carpet spread out on which to kneel at the appointed hour he 
must have his smoking-carpet on which to recline and dream 
away his time there must be a carpet for tent and harem bazaar 
and mosque 

As darkness begins bats issue from the fissures of walls and 
other hiding-places where they have sought shelter during the 
day and by their active flight capture such insects as are then on 
the wing gnats musquitoes moths beetles &c The service which 
they thus render is very considerable particularly in tropical 
regions where they swarm by myriads 

omission of a conjunction or verb. 711. Recite Rule VIII., relating to words used 
In pr.irs. 712. Recite Rule IX. , relating to words repeated. 



268 THE DASH. — PARENTHESES. 

LESSON XCVI. 

PUNCTUATION (CONTINUED). 

713. The Dash. — The dash is used to denote, 

I. A break in the construction. " Glory — what 
is it ? " 

II. A transition in the sentiment from grave to 
humorous. " London is noted for its magnificent 
buildings, its extensive shipping, and — its dexterous 
pickpockets." 

III. A sudden interruption. " You know my feel- 
ings ; you know — " " Hold ! " interrupted my friend. 

IY. Hesitation. " Such a man is a — a — I know not 
what to call him." 

Y. An abrupt or exclamatory repetition. "Such 
was the testimony of Solomon — Solomon, who had all 
the pleasures of the world at his command." 

114. A dash is sometimes used to denote the omission of letters, figures, 
or words ; as, "In the year 18 — , I stopped over night at the village of 
G— ." 

'715. A dash after other points makes them indicate a greater degree 
of separation than they generally denote. 

716. Parentheses. — -Marks of parenthesis are used 
to enclose words which explain, modify, or add to the 
main proposition, when so introduced as to break the 
connection between dependent parts and interfere with 
the harmonious flow. "The Saxons (for they de- 
scended from the ancient Sacse) retained for centuries 
the energy and morality of their ancestors." 

717. Brackets. — Brackets are used principally in 

713. For what five purposes is the dash used ? 714. What else is the dash used 
to denote? 715. What is the effectof the dash after other points? 716. For what 
are marks of parenthesis used ? 717. Where and for what are brackets principally 
Used? 



EXERCISE IN PUNCTUATION. 269 

quoted passages, to enclose words improperly omitted, 
or added by way of correction, observation, or explana- 
tion. " She is weary with [of] life." 

EXERCISE. 

Punctuate the following sentences : — He who plays the tyranl 
in his own family is a a a what term can I find strong enough to 
express my contempt — Archimedes the great Sicilian philosopher 
and what ancient philosopher ranks higher was ignorant of some 
things that are now known to every intelligent school-boy — 
Phonography and under this head we include every method of 
writing by signs that represent the sounds of language is a 
great improvement on stenography — What are they all worth 
the triumphs and honors of the world — This was the state of 
things in Borne Eome the queen-city of the world — " They rise 
successive should the author not have said successively and succes- 
sive fall " 

The Eomans were at war with the Persians and their supply 
of silk from this source being cut off they sought unsuccessfully 
to obtain it through other channels About this time two monks 
who had penetrated to China returned to Constantinople bring- 
ing with them the news that this wonderful sericum for such was 
the Latin name of silk was the produce of a little worm which 
changed into a moth they had observed many of the processes 
by which it was prepared for use The Eoman emperor offered 
them greafc rewards to return and procure some of the eggs of 
this wonderful worm which they did at the hazard of their lives 
552 A D and the few eggs which they brought concealed in a hol- 
low stick were the stock from which all the silk-worms since 
reared in Europe have descended 



LESSON XCVIL 

APOSTROPHE. — HYPHEN. — QUOTATION-POINTS. 

718. Besides the punctuation-points, the following 
marks are used in written and printed matter : the 

718. What marks "besides the punctuation-points are used in written and 



270 APOSTROPHE. — HYPHEN. QUOTATION-POINTS* 

Apostrophe ( ? ), the Hyphen ( - ), and Quotation-points 

(« »). 

719. The Apostrophe. — The apostrophe denotes the 
omission of a letter or letters, and the possessive case 
of nouns. 

Examples. — ^Tis for it is ; e'en for even ; don't for do not ; tho* fof 
though ; o ] clock for on [the] clock. So, in the possessive : heroes, Charles's, 
me?i's, children's, heroes'. But remember that the personal pronouns never 
take the apostrophe in the possessive case : ours, yours, hers, theirs. 

720. The Hyphen. — The hyphen is used to connect 
the elements of a compound word, when each retains 
its own accent ; as, castle-builder, father-in-law, red' 
hot, law-abiding, inside-out. 

The hyphen is also used after a complete syllable at 
the end of a line, to connect the parts of a divided 
word. The hyphen may also be used in stead of the 
diaeresis, to denote that the final vowel of a prefix does 
not form a diphthong with the first vowel of a primi- 
tive ; as, pre-engagement, re-establish. 

721. Quotation-points. — Quotation-points are used 
to enclose words quoted from an author or speaker, or 
represented in narrative as employed in dialogue ; as, 
" Remember now thy Creator in the days of thy 
youth." 

T22. When the substance merely is given, and not the exact words, 
quotation-points are unnecessary. 

*723. Matter within quotation-points is to be punctuated just as if it 
stood in any other position. 

724. When quotation-points are needed at the end of a sentence, they 
come after whatever other point is required there, if this point applies to 



printed matter? 719. What does the apostrophe denote? Give examples. 
720. For what is the hyphen used? For what is it used at the end of a line ? For 
what purpose is it used in stead of the diaeresis? 721. What are quotation-points 
used to enclose ? 722. When are quotation-points unnecessary ? 723. How is matter 
within quotation-points to be punctuated ? 724. How are quotation-points to stand, 



EXERCISE IN PUNCTUATION". 271 

the quotation alone, but before this point, if it applies to the whole sen- 
tence and not exclusively to the quotation ; as, Pilate asked, " What is 
truth ? " Where now is the " man of destiny " ? 

725. A quotation within a passage that is itself quoted, is enclosed be- 
tween Single Quotation-points (< ') ; as, " I would remind you that Young 
calls man an 4 insect infinite \" 

EXERCISE. 

Punctuate, and insert the apostrophe, the hyphen, and quota- 
tion-points, where they are required : — The following ever to be 
remembered couplet is from Popes Moral Essays 

Tis education forms the common mind 
Just as the twig is bent the trees inclined 
Now continued the cavalier lets seek this fair groves friendly 
shelter and mid its cool retreats enjoy that friendship which ac- 
cording to the poet is a heavn in epitome — Now there 11 be no 
delay een tho they meet a stiff souwester — Temptations says Fene- 
lon are files that rub off much of our self confidence — Yery forcibly 
says the poet 

How poor how rich how abject how august 
How complicate how wonderful is man 
At twenty three he was a hare brained youth who d brook no 
counsel — I d rather wait than go thro such a rain — The aveng- 
ing power belongs to one alone 



LESSON XCVIII. 

FIGURES OF ETYMOLOGY. — FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 

726. Observe the following sentence : — 

" ' Neath a tyrant's yoke the people languish." 
This sentence in plain language and according to the ordinary mods 
tf expression would read thus : " The people languish beneath a tyrant's 
power." Three things are to be noticed : 1. In the original sentence, the 

relatively to other points at the end of a sentence ? 725. When are single quota- 
tion-points to be used ? 

726. Repeat the sentence presented at the commencement of the lesson. Wliat 
three things are to be noticed in connection with it ? What are such changes 



272 FIGURES. 

word 'neath is used for the ordinary form beneath. 2. The natural order 
of the words is changed. 3. The word yoke is used, not in its ordinary 
signification, a wooden frame by which two oxen are connected for draw- 
ing, but in the sense of power tyrannically exerted. We see then that 
changes may be made in the form, construction, and application of words 
Such changes are called Figures. 

727. A Figure is a mode of expression in which the 
ordinary form, construction, or application of words is 
changed. 

728. Figures may be divided into three classes : — 

1. Those in which the ordinary form of words is 
changed, called Figures of Etymology. 

2. Those in which the ordinary construction of 
words is changed, called Figures of Syntax. 

3. Those in which the ordinary application of words 
is changed, called Figures of Rhetoric. 

729. Figures of Etymology.- — The most important 
figures of etymology are as follows : A-phser'-e-sis, 
Pros'-the-sis, Syn'-co-pe, A-poc'-o-pe, Par-a-go'-ge, and 
Tme'-sis. 

Aphseresis is the elision of a letter or letters from 
the beginning of a word ; as, Hwixt for "betwixt. 

Prosthesis is the prefixing of a letter or letters to a 
word ; as, bedaub for daub, ybent for bent. 

Syncope is the elision of a letter or letters from the 
middle of a word ; as, giv*n for given. 

Apocope is the elision of a letter or letters at the 
end of a word ; as, V ffi midst, for in the midst. 

Paragoge is the annexing of a letter or letters to a 
word ; as, steepy for steep. 

Tmesis is the separation of the elements of a com 

called? 727. What is a Figure ? 728. How may figures "be divided? Define and 
name these three classes. 729. Mention the most important figures of etymology. 
Define Aphaeresis. Define Prosthesis. Define Syncope. Define Apocope. De» 



FIGURES. 273 

pound by some intervening word or words ; as, whose 
sins soever for whosesoever sins, the live day long for 
the livelong day. 

730. Figures of Syntax. — The most important 
figures of syntax are as follows : — El-lip'-sis, Ple'-o- 
nasm, Syl-lep'-sis, and Hy-per'-ba-ton. 

Ellipsis is tlie omission of a word or words, neces- 
sary to the complete construction of a sentence, but not 
essential to its meaning. . Numerous examples of this 
figure were presented in Lesson LXVIII. 

Pleonasm is the use of words not necessary to the con- 
struction ; as, " He that cometh, let him come quickly," 
— for " Let him that cometh, come quickly." — Super- 
fluous words generally weaken the style. Pleonasm 
should be sparingly used, and only when it is naturally 
introduced under the influence of strong emotion. 

Syllepsis is the construing of words according to the 
meaning they convey, and not by the strict require- 
ments of grammatical rules. 

" Philip went down to the city of Samaria, and preached Christ unto 
them" In this example, city is in the third, singular ; and, according to 
§ 555, them should be it. By the city, however, is meant the people in 
the city, and the pronoun referring to it may therefore, by syllepsis, be put 
in the plural. 

We have numerous examples of syllepsis in masculine and feminine 
pronouns used with reference to inanimate objects personified ; as, u Night 
spread her mantle o'er the earth." 

Hyperbaton is a deviation from the natural ar- 
rangement of words ; as, Thee I revisit for I revisit 
thee. 

fine Paragoge. Define Tmesis. 730. Mention the most important figures of syn- 
tax. Define Ellipsis. Define Pleonasm. What is generally the effect of super- 
fluous words? What is said respecting the use of pleonasm? Define Syllepsis. 
Give an example of this figure. In what have we numerous examples of syllep- 
sis ? Define Hyperbaton. Of what is hyperbaton a distinguishing feature? 
What is its effect, when judiciously used ? To what is it liable to lead ? 

12* 



274 FIGURES. 

This figure is one of the distinguishing features of poetry. Judiciously 
used, it imparts variety and strength to composition ; but care must be 
taken that it does not lead to obscurity. 

EXERCISE. 
Point out the figures of etymology and the figures of syntax 
that occur in the following sentences : — Israel pitched their tents 
in the desert. — Kedemption ! 'twas the favor of the skies. — Each 
in other's countenance read his own dismay. — Far adown the 
vasty gulf plunged the archangel. — Such is their love to us ward. 
— 'Gainst him discharge thy shafts entipped with flame. — Sweet 
Evening— how she fans our cheek with her cool breath ! — Oft with 
th' enchantress of his soul he talks. 

" Fashion, leader of a chatt'ring train, 
"Whom man for his own hurt permits to reign, 
"Who shifts and changes all things but his shape, 
And would degrade her vot'ry to an ape, 
The fruitful parent of abuse and wrong, 
Holds a usurp'd dominion o'er his tongue ; 
There sits and prompts him with his own disgrace, 
Prescribes the theme, the tone, and the grimace, 
And, when accomplished in her wayward school, 
Calls gentleman whom she has made a fool." 



LESSON XCIX. 

FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 

731. The most important figures of rhetoric are as 
follows: — Sim'-i-le, Met'-a-phor, Al'-le-go-ry, Me-ton'- 
y-my, Sy-nec'-do-che, Hy-per'-bo-le, Vi'-sion, Per-son-i- 
fi-ca'-tion, An-tith'-e-sis, Cli'-max, F-ro-ny, and A-poph'- 
a-sis. 

732. Simile is the direct comparison of one object 
to another, and is generally denoted by like, as, or so. 

731. Mention the most important figures of rhetoric. 732. Define Simile. 
How is the comparison sometimes made ? For what purposes are similes used 3 



FIGUKES. 275 

" Laws are like cobwebs, which catch small flies, but 
let wasps and hornets through." 

Sometimes the comparison is made without any formal term to denote 
it. Thus : " Adversity brings to light the merit in a man ; a gem is lus- 
treless till it is rubbed and polished." Here we have a good simile, though 
neither like, as, nor so appears. — Similes are used either to explain the 
meaning or embellish the style. 

733. Metaphor is the implying of a resemblance be- 
tween two objects, not by any term denoting similitude, 
but by assigning to one the name, attribute, or action 
of the other ; as, " Flattery is a sort of bad money, to 
which our vanity gives currency." 

Metaphor is the commonest of all figures. It appears in various forms, 
sometimes in a single word. We use metaphorical language, when we 
speak of a hard heart, a cold reception, bright hopes, fancies gambol- 
ling unbridled through the brain, pleasures strewed over the highway of 
life, &c. 

734. Allegory is a combination of kindred meta- 
phors, forming a kind of story, whereby it is sought to 
teach some important truth. 

Most of the parables of Scripture are forms of this figure. Sometimes 
an allegory is so extended as to fill a volume ; as in the case of Bunyan's 
44 Pilgrim's Progress ". 

735. Metonymy is calling one object by the name 
of another that sustains some relation to it. The prin- 
cipal relations on which this figure is founded, are as 
follows : — 

1. Cause and effect; as, 44 Extravagance is the ruin of many," — that 
is, the cause of ruin. 

2. Ancestor and descendants ; as, 44 Then shall Judah triumph," — that 
3S, the descendants of Judah. 

3. Attribute and that to which it belongs ; as, 44 Pride shall be brought 
low," — that is, the proud. 



733. Define Metaphor. As regards frequency of use, how does metaphor com- 
pare with other figures ? Give examples of common metaphorical expressions. 

734. Define Allegory. What examples of allegory are alluded to ? 736. Define 



276 FIGUKES. 

4. Container and thing contained; as, "Jerusalem shall rejoice,"—, 
that is, the people of Jerusalem. 

5. Emblem and thing represented; as, "This was offensive to the 
crown" — that is, the king. 

6. Material and thing made of it ; as, " Gold is all-powerful," — that is, 
-money. 

736. Synecdoche is using the name of a part for that 
of the whole, the name of the whole for that of a part, 
or a definite number for an indefinite ; as, " My roof 
is at your service," — that is, my house. u His head is 
grey," — that is, his hair. " A hundred swords leaped 
from their scabbards," — that is, a great number. 

737. Hyperbole is the exaggerating of an attribute, 
or the assigning to a subject of some impossible act ; 
as, " Her brow was as white as snow." " So bright 
their arms that the sun himself started with sudden 
fright." 

738. Vision is the representing of past events as 
now going on, or what is merely imagined as actually 
seen ; as, 

"Lo! anointed by Heaven with the vials of wrath, 
Behold where he flies on his desolate path ! 
Now in darkness and billows he sweeps from my sight ; 
Eise, rise, ye wild tempests, and cover his flight ! " 

739. Personification is the attributing of sex or life 
to an inanimate object, or intelligence to an inferior 
creature ; as, " Then the butterfly spoke, with a glance* 
of disdain." 

740. Antithesis is the contrasting of opposites, to 
heighten their effect ; as, " Hatred stirreth up strife ; 
but love covereth all sins." 

741. Climax is such an arrangement of words, 

Metonymy. Mention the principal relations on which metonymy is founded, and 
give an example of each. 736. Define Synecdoche. 737. Define Hyperbole. 73& 



FIGURES. 277 

clauses, members, or sentences, that the weakest may- 
stand first, and that each in turn, rising in importance, 
may make a deeper impression on the mind than the 
one before it ; as, " Then Virtue became silent, heart* 
sick, pined away, and died" 

742. Irony is the asserting of directly the opposite 
of what we wish to be understood ; as when I say, 
" Go on ; time is icorth nothing" — meaning that it is 
very valuable. 

743. Apophasis is the pretended suppression of what 
one is all the time actually mentioning ; as, " I shall 
say nothing of the immorality prevalent in Paris — im- 
morality which is all the more dangerous, because ar- 
rayed in the most attractive garbs." 

EXEECISE. 

Point out the figures, whether of etymology, syntax, or rhetoric: 
— As cold waters to a thirsting soul, so is good news from a far 
country. — Is the pen mightier than the sword ? — Faithful are the 
wounds of a friend ; but the kisses of an enemy are deceitful. — 
Where no wood is, there the fire goeth out ; so, where there is 
no tale-bearer, the strife ceaseth. — What shall induce a man to 
deny his faith ? Shall love of pleasure ? shall ambition ? shall 
persecution? shall the certainty of death itself ?— Her tears might 
have put out a world on fire. — Eeverence the hoary head. — Then 
groan'd the Earth. — When there's a fire, be sure to throw the 
looking-glasses out of the window, and carry the feather beds 
carefully down in your arms. — To waste one's time is foolish, not 
to mention the sin involved in it. 

" But hark ! thro' the fast-flashing lightning of war, 
What steed to the desert flies frantic and far ? " 

" Eternal Hope ! when yonder spheres sublime 
Pealed their first notes to sound the march of Time, 

Define Vision. 739. Define Personification. 740. Define Antithesis. 741. Define 
Climax. 742. Define Irony. 743. Define Apophasis. 



278 PROSODY. 

Thy joyous youth began — but not to fade. 

When all the sister planets have decayed ; 

When wrapt in fire the realms of ether glow, 

And Heaven's last thunder shakes the world below $ 

Thou, undismayed, shalt o'er the ruins smile, 

And light thy torch at Nature's funeral pile ! " 



LESSON C. 

PROSODY. 



744. Prosody is that part of grammar which treats 
of the quantity of syllables, of feet, and the modes in 
which they are combined in verse. 

745. Verse is language so arranged in lines that 
syllables of a certain length may occur at certain in- 
tervals. 

Verse is the form in which poetry generally appears. Poetry is dis- 
tinguished from prose not only by this form, but by its containing more 
figures, as well as peculiar words and expressions. 

746. There are two kinds of verse, Rhyme and 
Blank Verse. 

747. Rhyme is that kind of verse in which there is 
a correspondence of sound in the last syllables of two 
or more lines ; as, 

" True wit is nature to advantage dressed, 
What oft was thought, but ne'er so well expressed." 

748. Blank Verse is metrical language without rhyme ; 
as, 

" Shall we serve Heaven 
With less respect than we do minister 
To our gross selves ? " 

744. What is Prosody ? 745. What is Verse ? How is poetry distinguished 
from prose ? 746. How many kinds of verse are there ? Name them and define 



PROSODY. 279 

749. By the Quantity of a syllable is meant the 
time required for its utterance. According to this 
time, syllables are distinguished as Long and Short. 
One long syllable is equivalent to two short ones. 

750. A long syllable may be denoted by a short horizontal line placed 
over its vowel, a short syllable by a curve ; as, passing. 

*751. Remember that vowel sounds have nothing to do with the quan- 
tity of syllables in verse. Met, in which e has its short sound, is more 
likely to be long in verse than me, in which e has what is known as its 
long sound. 

752. In words of more than one syllable, accent constitutes length ; 
unaccented syllables are short. In the case of monosyllables, nouns, ad- 
jectives, verbs, adverbs, and interjections, are for the most part long; 
articles are always short ; prepositions and conjunctions are generally 
short ; pronouns are long when emphasized, — when not, short. Observe 
the quantity as marked in the following lines : — 

" Of all the causes which conspire to blind 
Man's erring judgment, and misguide the mind, 
What the weak head with strongest bias rules, 
Is pride ; the never-failing vice of fools." 

753. A Foot is two or more syllables, constituting a 
portion of a line. 

754. The most important feet in English verse are 
as follows : — 

The Iambus, a short syllable and a long, ~— severe. 

The Tro'chee, a long syllable and a short, — « trembling. 

The Spondee, two long syllables, cold winds. 

The Pyrrhic, two short syllables, ~ ~ wil- | derness. 

The An'apest, two short and a long, w w — barricade. 

The Dactyl, a long and two short, — ~ ^ tenderly. 

The Am'phibrach, a short, a long, and a short, ~ — ~ tremendous. 

The Amphim'acer, a long, a short, and a long, — ~ — saddle-bags. 



each. 749. What is meant by the Quantity of a syllable ? As regards quantity, 
how are syllables distinguished ? To what is one long syllable equivalent ? 750. 
How may a long syllable be denoted ? A short one ? 751. What caution is given 
with respect to the quantity of syllables ? 752. In words of more than one syllable, 
what constitutes length ? State the principles that apply to the quantity of 
monosyllables. 753. What is a Foot ? 754. Mention the most important feet that 



280 PBOSODY. 

755. Of these, the Iambus, the Trochee, the Ana- 
pest, and the Dactyl, are the principal. A line may 
be wholly composed of any of these four feet, and it is 
then called Pure. 

The four remaining feet never form whole lines by 
themselves, but are sometimes interspersed with other 
feet. A line into which different feet enter is called 
Mixed. Observe the following examples : — 

1. Pure Iambic. — 'Tis ed- | iica- | tion forms | the com- | mon mind. 

2. Pure Trochaic. — Oh ! the | pain, the | bliss of | dying ! 

3. Pure Atiapestic. — She will say [ 'twas a bar- j barous deed. 

4. Pure Dactylic. — Handle her | tenderly. 

1. Mixed Iambic. — No ref- | uge save | the wll- | derness | remains. 

2. Mixed Trochaic. — Softly | sweet in | Lydian | measures. 

3. Mixed Anapestic. — Soft scenes | of content- | ment and ease. 

4. Mixed Dactylic. — Ever move | cheerily. 

EXERCISE. 

Give the quantity of each syllable in the following lines ; in 
such lines as are divided, name each foot : — 

"Sweet is the breath of morn, her rising sweet, 
"With charm of earliest birds ; pleasant the sun, 
"When first on this delightful land he spreads 
His orient beams, on herb, tree, fruit, and flower, 
Glistering with dew ; fragrant the fertile earth 
After soft showers ; and sweet the coming on 
Of grateful evening mild." 

" I have passed | o'er the hills | of the storm- | j North, 
And the larch | has hung | all his tas- | sels forth ; 
The fish- | er is out | on the sun- | ny sea, 
And the rein- | deer bounds | through the past- | ure free, 
And the pine | has a fringe | of soft- | er green, 
And the moss | looks bright | where my step | has been." 

occur in English verse, and the syllables of which each consists. 755 Of which 
of these feet may lines be wholly composed ? What are such lines called ? What 
use is made of the other feet ? What is meant by a Mixed Line ? Give examples 
of pure and mixed lines. 



PROSODY. 281 

LESSON CI. 

PROSODY (CONTINUED). 

756. By Metres are meant the different systems 
according to which verses, or lines, are formed. They 
are named from the feet employed, and their number. 

757. Metres in which the iambus prevails, are called 
Iambic ; those in which the trochee prevails, Trochaic ; 
the anapest, Anapestic ; the dactyl, Dactylic. 

758. Distinguished by the number of feet in a line, 
the varieties of metre are as follows : Monom'eter, which 
consists of one foot ; Dimeter, of two feet ; Trimeter, 
of three ; Tetrameter, of four ; Pentameter, of five ; 
Hexameter, of six ; Heptani'eter, of seven ; Oetom'eter, 
of eight. 

759. Some metres, besides a certain number of com- 
plete feet, contain a syllable over at the end of the line. 
Such metres are called Hy-per-cat-a-lec'-tic. 

760. Scanning is the process of dividing a line into 
the feet of which it is composed. 

761. Examples of the different metres follow. Some 
of the lines are pure, and some are mixed. The figures 
1, 2, 3, &c, respectively denote monometer, dimeter, 
trimeter, &c. Vertical lines mark divisions into feet. 

To scan, pronounce the syllables that constitute the successive feet, 
after each foot mentioning its name. The fifth iambic line in the Exercise 
below would be scanned thus : Whafs fame, spondee ; a fan-, iambus ; 
cied life, iambus; in oth-, iambus; erh breath, iambus. The metre is 
mixed iambic pentameter. The third of the hypercatalectic lines would be 
scanned thus : Athens, trochee ; holds my, trochee ; heart and, trochee ; 
soul, syllable over. The metre is pure trochaic trimeter hypercatalectic. 

756. What are meant by Metres? 757. What are Iambic Metres ? Trochaic? 
Anapestic? Dactylic? 758. Name the different metres as distinguished by their 
number of feet, and tell of what each consists. 759. What is meant by Hypercata- 
lectic Metres ? 760. What is Scanning ? 



282 PKOSODY. 

E XER CISE. 

Scan the following lines, and name the metre of each : — 

IAMBIC METRES. 
1. Despair I 
2. The wave | resounds. 
3. The pant- | ing herds | repose. 

4. The proud | are taught | to taste | of pain. 

5. What's fame ? | A fan- | cied life | in oth- | er's breath. 
6. With still unwearied wing, and eye that never sleeps. 
7. Thy bounteous hand with worldly bliss has made my cup run o'er. 
8. Wisdom, in sable garb arrayed, immersed in rapturous thought profound. 

TROCHAIC METRES. 

1. Pillow. 
2. Charms trans- | porting. 
3. Other j arms may | press thee. 
4. War, he | sung, is J toil and | trouble. 

5. Oh ! the J strife of | this di- | vided 1 being. 
6. Only thou art holy ; there is none beside thee. 

7. Read you not the wrong you're doing, in my cheek's pale color? 
8. If the world be worth thy winning, think, oh 1 think it worth enjoying, 

ANAPESTIC METRES. 

1. It is gone 1 
2. Let the loud | trumpet sound. 
3. My grottoes are shaded with trees. 
4. Have ye e'er heard of gallant like young Lochinvar? 

DACTYLIC METRES. 

1. Slenderly. 

2. Fashioned so | slenderly. 

3. Fierce as the breath of the hurricane. 

4. Happy the home of the thrifty and temperate I 

5. Far o'er the burning sands, far over desert lands, wearily. 

6. Far o'er the burning sands, far over desert lands, plodding on wearily. 

EXAMPLES OF HYPERCATALECTIC METRES. 

1. Dae. Mon. Hyp.— "Ever be | firm. 

2. Ana. Dim. Hyp.— For the* tern- | pest is rag- | Tng. 

S, Tro. Trim. Hyp.— Athens | holds my | heart and | soul. 

4. lam. Tetr. Hyp.— I know | the thing | that's most | uncom- 1 mon. 

5. lam. Pent. Hyp.— Where reek- | ing Lon- j don's emok- | y cal- j drdn 
«Tm- | mSrs. 



IKDEX, 



[the figures refer to pages, not to SECTIONS.] 



A. 

A, when to be used as the indefinite ar- 
ticle, 74. 

Abbreviations, list of, 261. 

Accent, defined, 12. The acute, 12. Dif- 
ference of, serves to distinguish words, 
12. Of compound words, 18. 

Adjective Pronouns, TO. Declension of, 
71. Number of, 71. Parsing of, 71. 

Adjectives, defined, 75. Classes of, 75. 
Proper, defined, 75. Numeral, defined, 
76; classes of, 76. Pronominal, 76. 
Common, 77. Comparison of, 78. Eule 
for, 79 ; remarks under, 218, 220. Pars- 
ing of, 79. Arrangement of, 218. 

Adjuncts, defined, 150. 

Adverbs, defined, 141. Classes of, 141. 
Of manner, 141. How to be distin- 
guished from adjectives, 143. To be 
distinguished in use from adjectives, 
144. Conjunctive, 144. Complex, 145. 
Comparison of, 147. Construction of, 
148. Used independently, 148. Rule 
for, 148 ; remarks under, 242. Parsing 
of, 148. Position of, 243. 

Allegory, 275. 

Alphabet, of a language, what it is, 8. 
The English, 8. 

Amphibrach, the, 279. 

Amphimacer, the, 279. 

An, when to be used as the indefinite 
article, 73. 

Anapest, the, 279. 

Antecedent, the, what it is, 62. Position 
o£ 64. Sometimes understood, 64. 



Antithesis, 276. 

Aphmresis, 272. 

Apocope, 272. 

Apophasis, 277. 

Apostrophe, the, 270. 

Apposition, what is meant by it, 5ft 
Rule for substantives in, 195; remarks 
under, 195. 

Articles, defined, 72. Classification o£ 
73. The definite article, what it de- 
notes, 73. The indefinite article, what 
it denotes, 73. Rule for, 74; remarks 
under, 214. Parsing of, 74. Position 
of, 216. 

As (relative), to what applied, 63. 

Auxiliaries, what they are, 107. Enu- 
merated, 107. How to be taken in 
parsing, 107. Sometimes understood, 
107. How to be distinguished from 
principal verbs, 113. 



Base of a sentence, defined, 167. 

Be, a principal verb and an auxiliary, 

108. Conjugated, 114. Old form of, in 

the present indicative, 116. 
Beware, tenses of, 138. 
Brackets, what used for, 268. 



C. 

Can, conjugated, 112. 
Capitals, rules for, 25X 



284 



INDEX. 



Cardinals, 76. 

Case, of nouns, 50. Denned, 51. Nomi- 
native, what it denotes, 51. Posses- 
sive, what it denotes, 52. Objective, 
what it denotes, 52. Cases, how form- 
ed, 53. 

Clauses, defined, 166. Kinds of, 166. 
Substantive, defined, 166. Eelative, 
defined, 166. Participial, defined, 166. 
Adverbial, defined, 166. Causal, de- 
fined, 167. Comparative, defined, 167. 
Hypothetical, defined, 167. 

Climax, 276. 

Collective Nouns, defined, 30. Gender 
of, 46. 

Colon, the, rules for, 263. 

Comma, the, rules for, 265. 

Comparative Degree, the, defined, 78. 
Adjectives wanting in, 81. Adjectives 
found only in, 82. Construction of, 

220. 

Comparison, 78. Degrees of, 78; for- 
mation of the, 78. Irregular, 80. Of 
compound adjectives, 82. Of adverbs, 
147. 

Compound Words, defined, 12. Accent 
of, 13. Formation of, IS. Elements 
of, 38. 

Conjugation, what it is, 108. Of he, 114. 
Of a transitive verb, in the active 
voice, 117; in the passive voice, 120. 
Negative, 127. Interrogative, 128 ; 
when used, 129. Negative-interroga- 
tive, 128 ; when used, 129. 

Conjunctions, defined, 156. List of, 156. 
To be distinguished from other parts 
of speech, 157. Complex, 158. Rule 
for, 158 ; remarks under, 248. Parsing 
of, 158. Correlative, 250. 

Consonants, defined, 10. 

Could, conjugated, 112. 



Dactyl, the, 279. 

Dash, the, what it denotes, 268. 

Declension, of nouns, 53. Of simple per- 
sonal pronouns, 55. Of simple relatives, 
63. Of compound relatives, 65. Of 
adjective pronouns, 71. 



Demonstrative Adjective Pronouns, 70. 
Derivative Words, defined, 12. Forma* 

tion of, 13, 18. 
Diazresis, what it is, 23. 
Diphthongs, defined, 11. Proper, 11 Im» 

proper, 11. 
Dissyllables, defined, 9. 
Distributive Adjective Pronouns, 70. 
Do, a principal verb and an auxiliary, 1091 

Conjugated as an auxiliary, 109. 



E. 

Each Other, construction of, explained, 

196. 
Elements, of compound words, 38. 
Ellipsis, what it is, 177. Examples of, 177. 

Parsing exercise illustrative of, 179. 
Exclamation-point, the, rule for, 262. 



F. 

False Syntax, connected with the sub- 
ject and nominative independent, 186. 
Substantives modifying nouns, 1 S9. The 
object, 193. Objective without a prep- 
osition, 194. Nouns in apposition, 197. 
Substantives after verbs, 200. Pronouns, 
202, 205, 212. Eelatives, 209. Articles, 
216. Adjectives, 219, 222. Agreement 
of verbs, 225, 229. Moods and tenses of 
verbs, 232. The infinitive, 235. Par- 
ticiples, 238, 241. Adverbs, 244. Prep- 
ositions, 247. Conjunctions, 250. Mis- 
cellaneous, 251. 

Feminine, formation of nouns in the, 47. 

Figures, plural of, how formed, 37. 

Figures, defined, 272. Of etymology, 272. 
Of syntax, 273. Of rhetoric, 274. 

Foot, a, what it is, 279. 

Future, of time, 110. Of determination, 
110. 

G. 

Gender, of nouns, 44. Defined, 44. Mas- 
culine, defined, 45. Feminine, defined, 
45. Nouns destitute of, 45. Common, 
45. Of collective nouns, 46. Distin* 



INDEX. 



285 



guished by a change of termination, 47 ; 
by the use of different words, 48; by 
prefixing words indicating the sex, 49. 
Of pronouns, 55. 
Grammar, what it teaches us, 7. Eng- 
lish, what it teaches us, 7. 

H. 

Have, a principal verb and an auxiliary, 
108. Conjugated as an auxiliary, 109. 

ffyperbaton, 273. 

Hyperbole, 276. 

Hypercatalectic, metres, 281. 

Hyphen, the, for what used, 270. When 
used between the parts of a compound 
word, 13. When it may be used for the 
diaeresis, 23. 

I. 

/, when a consonant, 10. 

Iambus, the, 279. 

If, sometimes omitted before certain 
tenses, 116. 

Imperative Mood, what it expresses, 98. 

Indefinite Adjective Pronouns, 70. 

Indicative Mood, for what used, 90. 
Present tense of the, what it denotes, 
90. Imperfect, 91. Perfect, 91. Plu- 
perfect, 92. First Future, 92. Second 
Future, 92. Interrogative form of the, 
92. 

Infinitive Mood, what it expresses, 99. 
Present tense of the, what it expresses, 
99. Perfect, 99. Usages of the, 100. 
Eule for the, 101 ; remarks under, 234. 
When used without its sign, 234. 

Interjections, defined, 159. List of the 
principal, 159. Followed by the excla- 
mation-point, 160. Construction of, 160. 
Parsing of, 161. 

Interrogation-point, the, rule for, 262. 

Interrogative Pronouns, defined, 68. 
How declined, 68. Parsing o^ 68. 

Irony, 277. 

Irregular Verbs, what they are, 131. 
Table of the chief parts of the, 133. 

It, indefinite use of, 57. 

Italics, for what msed, 24. 



!■• 

Letters, defined, 8. Powers of the, 9. 
Classification of, 10. Final, defined, 11 
Silent, defined, 11. Roman, 24. Italic, 
24. Forms of the, 24. Plural of, how 
formed, 37. 



M. 

Mat, conjugated, 112. 

Metaphor, 275. 

Metonymy, 275. 

Methinks, meseems, 139. 

Metres, what they are, 281. Varieties ot, 
281. 

Might, conjugated, 112. 

Mixed Verses, what they are, 280. 

Modifiers, defined, 50. 

Monosyllables, defined, 9. 

Mood, defined, 88. Moods enumerated, 
89. Indicative, for what used, 90. Po- 
tential, for what used, 93. Subjunctive, 
for what used, 96. Imperative, what 
it expresses, 98. Infinitive, what it ex- 
presses, 99. 

Multiplicatives, 76. 

Must, conjugated, 112. 



N. 

Need, a principal verb and an auxiliary, 
112. Conjugated as an auxiliary, 112. 

News, singular, 43. 

Nominative Case, what it denotes, 51. 
Eule for the, 58. Independent, 58, 186. 

Nouns, defined, 28. Classification of, 28. 
Common, defined, 29 ; when they be- 
come proper, 29; subdivisions of, 30. 
Proper, defined, 30; when called 
complex, 31; plural of, 35; how made 
feminine, 48. Collective, defined, 30. 
Participial, defined, 30. Diminutive, 
defined, 30. Abstract, defined, 30. Per- 
son of, 31. Number of, 33. Irregular 
in the plural, 36. Alike in both num- 
bers, 36. Compound, plural of, 38; 
gender of, 49. Complex proper, plural 
of, 39. Foreign, plural of, 40. Singu* 



286 



INDEXc 



lar, 43. Plural, 43. Gender of, 44 
Correlative, 47. Case of, 50. Declen- 
sion of, 53. Parsing of; 60. 
Number, of nouns, 33. Defined, 33. Sin- 
gular, defined, 34 Plural, defined, 34 ; 
rules for forming the, 34 Of verbs, 100. 

O. 

£>, difference between it and oh, 160. 
Object, what it is, 52. Eule for the, 191 ; 

remarks under, 192. Position of the, 

192. 
Objective Case, what it denotes, 52. Eule 

for the, 58. Without a preposition, 59, 

193 ; remarks on the, 193. 
One another, construction of explained, 

196. 
Ordinals, 76. 
Ought, conjugated, 138. 

P. 

Paragoge, 272. 

Parentheses, what used for, 268. 

Parsing, of nouns and personal pronouns, 
60. Of relatives, 65. Of interrogatives, 
69. Of adjective pronouns, 71. Of ar- 
ticles, 74. Of adjectives, 79. Of verbs, 
101. Of participles, 106. Of adverbs, 
148. Of prepositions, 155. Of conjunc- 
tions, 158. Of interjections, 161. Exer- 
cise in elliptical, 179. Of difficult con- 
. structions, 181. 

Participles, defined, 102. The Present 
Participle, 102. The Perfect, 103. The 
Compound Perfect, 103. How to be 
distinguished from adjectives, 105; 
from participial nouns, 105. Used in- 
dependently, 105. Rule for, 105; re- 
marks under, 237. Substantives modi- 
fying, 106. Parsing of, 106. In ing, 
used with a passive meaning, 123. Po- 
sition of, 237. Eemarks on the con- 
struction of, 240. 

Parts of Speech, what they are, 25. Enu- 
merated, 27. 

Period, the, rule for, 260. 

Person, of nouns, 31. Defined, 32. First, 
defined, 32. Second, defined, 32. Third, 
defined, 82. Use of the third for the 



first, 32 ; for the second, 33. Of verbs, 
99. 

Personal Pronouns, simple, 55 ; declen- 
sion of, 55. Compound, 55. 

Personification, what it is, 29, 276. 
Makes common nouns proper, 29. En- 
dows the names of inanimate objects 
with gender, 45. 

Pleonasm, 273. 

Plural, of nouns, rules for forming the, 
34. Of proper nouns, 35. Nouns irreg- 
ular in the, 36. Nouns that have two 
forms in the, 36. Of figures, &c, 37. 
Of compound nouns, 38. Of complex 
proper nouns, 39. Of foreign nouns, 40 ; 
rules for the, 41. Nouns that have no, 
43. Nouns used only in the, 43. Of 
pronouns, used for singular, 56. 

Polysyllables, defined, 9. 

Positive Degree, defined, 78. Adjectives 
wanting in the, 81. 

Possessive Case, what it denotes, 52. 
How formed, 53. Of the simple per- 
sonal pronouns, 56. Used after the 
preposition of, 56. Eule for the, 58. 
Eule for the, before a participle, 239; 
remarks under, 240. 

Potential Mood, for what used, 93. Pres- 
ent tense of the, what it denotes, 93. 
Imperfect, 94; wrong use of the, 231. 
Perfect, 94. Pluperfect, 95. Interroga- 
tive form of the, 95. 

Predicate, defined, 50. A compound, 
169. Nominative, 170. Adjective, 170... 

Prefixes, defined, 14. List of, 15. 

Prepositions, defined, 150. List of, 151. 
To be distinguished from adverbs and 
conjunctions, 151. Complex, 152. Po- 
sition of, 153. Terms of the relation 
indicated by, 153. Eule for, 155; re- 
marks under, 245. Parsing of, 155. 
List of, that follow certain words, 246. 

Primitive Words, defined, 12. 

Progressive Form, of the verb, 125. 
Used passively, 125. Parsing of verbs 
in the, 126. 

Pronouns, defined, 54 Classes of, 54. 
Gender of, 55. Personal, 55; parsing 
of, 60. Eelative, 62. Interrogative, 63. 
Adjective, 70. Principles relating to 
the person, numbsr, and gender ot, 20& 



INDEX. 



287 



Referring to collective nouns, 201. 
Standing for two or more singular sub- 
stantives, 201, 204 Referring to sub- 
stantives of different persons, 202. Re- 
marks on the construction of, 211. 

Prosody, defined, 278. 

Prosthesis, 272. 

Punctuation, defined, 260. Points used 
in, 260. 

Pure Verses, what they are, 280. 

Pyrrhic, the, 279. 



Quantity, of a syllable, 279. 

Quotation, a, defined, 173. How treated 

in analyzing, 174. 
Quotation-points, for what used, 270. 

Single, 271. 
Quoth, quod, 139. 

R. 

Relative Pronouns, simple, 62; declen- 
sion of, 63 ; Compound, 64 ; equivalent 
to antecedent and simple relative, 65 > 
declension of, 65. Parsing of, 65. Eule 
for, 164, 207; remarks under, 207, 210. 
Position of, 209. 

Rhyme, defined, 278. 

Roots, inseparable, 14. Entering into 
compound words, 19. Root of the verb, 
130. 

Rules, of spelling, 20. Of syllabicate, 
22. For the formation of the cases, 53. 
For cases of nouns and pronouns, 58. 
For capitals, 257. 

S. 

Scanning, what it is, 281. 

Semicolon, the, rules for, 264 

Sentences, defined, 163. Classified accord- 
ing to their meaning, 163. Declarative, 
defined, 163. Interrogative, defined, 
163. Imperative, defined, 163. Exclam- 
atory, defined, 163. Classified accord- 
ing to their form, 165. Members of, 
165. Simple and compound sentences, 
defined, 165. Compound, with dissimi- 
lar members, 170. Principal parts o£ 
170, Analysis of, 171 ; forms ojf, 171. 



Shall, conjugated, 110. Force oi, 110; 
in questions, 111. 

Should, conjugated, 112. 

Simile, 274 

Speech, the parts of, 25. 

Spelling, what it is, 8. Rules of, 20. 

Spondee, the, 279. 

Subject, grammatical, defined, 50. Logi- 
cal, defined, 50. Of a verb, 51. A com- 
pound, 168. Position of the, 185. Sub- 
jects, taken together, 227 ; taken sep- 
arately, 228. 

Subjunctive Mood, for what used, 90. 
Present tense of the, for what used, 97. 
Imperfect, 94; difference between it 
and the imperfect indicative, 97. 

Substantive, what it denotes, 58. Rule 
for a, modifying a participle, 106. Rule 
for a, modifying a noun, 188 ; remarks 
under, 188. Position of a, modifying a 
noun, 189. Rule for a, after a verb, 197 ; 
remarks under, 197. Case of, after a 
participle used independently, 198 ; af- 
ter a participle preceded by a possess- 
ive, 198. 

Suffixes, defined, 14 List of, 17. 

Superlative Degree, the, defined, 78. 
Construction of, 221. 

Syllabication, what it is, 22. Rules of, 22. 

Syllables, defined, 8. Division of words 
according to their, 9. 

Syllepsis, 273. 

Syncope, 272. 

Synecdoche, 276. 

Syntax, defined, 185. False, defined, 185. 

To 

Tense, defined, 89. Tenses, enumerated, 
89 ; compound, 107 ; formation of tho 
compound, 130. 

Than, construction of, 249. 

That (relative), to what applied, 63. Ho77 
to be distinguished from the conjunc- 
tion that, 63. When to be used in stead 
of who or which, 208. 

Time, grand divisions of, 89. 

Title, alone to be pluralized in complex 
proper nouns, 40. 

Tmesis, 272. 

Triphthongs, defined, 11. 



288 



INDEX. 



Trisyllables, defined, 9. 
Trochee, the, 279. 

U, when a consonant, 10. 



Verbs, defined, 84. A verb must be con- 
tained in every predicate, 50; subject 
of, 51, 84; how found, 85. Take the 
same case after as before, 59. Transi- 
tive, defmed, 85. Intransitive, defined, 
85; have no voice, 87; sometimes, 
when followed by a preposition, thrown 
into a passive form, 87. Properties of, 
88. When called finite, 89. Person 
and number of, 99. Rule for, 100 ; re- 
marks under, 224, 227, 230. Parsing 
of, 101. Conjugation of, what it is, 108. 
Progressive form of, 124. Koot of the 
verb, 130. Chief parts of, 131. Regu- 
lar and irregular, defined, 131. Table 
of irregular, 133. Defective, 138. Uni- 
personal, 139. Construction ot, agree- 
ing with collective nouns, 225 ; agreeing 
with two or more singular subjects, 227. 
Corrupt forms of, 231. 

Verse, defined, 278. Blank* 278. 

Vision, 276. 



Vocative Expressions, defined, 168. 
Voice, defined, 86. Active, defined, 87. 

Passive, defined, 87 ; parts of the, how 

formed. 120. 
Vowels, defined, 10. Combinations of, 11. 

W. 

W, when a consonant and when a vowel, 
10. 

Were, used for would be, 116. 

Whw (relative), to what applied, 63. 

Which, to what applied, 62. 

Who, to what applied, 62. 

Will, conjugated as principal verb and 
as auxiliary, 110. Force of, as an auxil- 
iary, 110 ; in questions, 111. 

Wis, wit, wot, 139. 

Words, defined, 7. Combined in sen* 
tences, to express thoughts, 8. Classified 
according to their formation, 12. Anal- 
ysis of, 18. Divided into nine classes, 
25. 

Would, conjugated, 112. Used as a prin- 
cipal verb, 113 ; tenses of, 138. 

Y. 

T, when a consonant and when a vowel, 
10. 




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